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Ex LiSris
J. Heyworth-Dunne
D. Lit. (London)
N?
752
I
BITCHES IH HISTORY, ECONOMICS AND PUBLIC LAW
Volume LXVTIl] [Whole Number 1(3
<Z/ i «. 4,* *At. (fa): <: -1 , »'-■ I" • ' u/6t
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
BRING A TRANSLATION FROM THE ARASIC
ACCOMPANIED WITH ANNOTATIONS'
GEOCKAFHIC AND HISTORIC NOTES OF THE
kitAb futOh al-buldAn
OF
tU-Imdm abo-1 'Abbas Ahmad ibn-J&bir al-Baladhuri
BT
PHILIP KHURI HITTI, Ph.D.
On Atptrmanmt ttafftfthe Syrian Pratakuti ColUge, JSriril, Sgna
OnKtw OoiHuM Imtmrm tit Columbia Vnwtriitg
Ntm JJork
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
LONGMANS* GREEN ft CO., AGENTS
London : P. S. Kino ft Son, Ltd.
1916
STANFORD LIBRARIES
IK. .74ft
Copyright, 1916
BY
Thk Faculty of Poutical Scibmce of
Columbia University, Nbw York
• • ••• •• .'-•• j* # • * *•• ••- • • .». _*- « • *♦
go
My Teacher, Friend and Colleague,
PROFESSOR RICHARD J. H. GOTTHEIL, Ph.D,
OF COLUMBIA UNIVEB8ITT
FOREWORD
Interest in the Nearer East has increased our desire to
know as accurately as is possible the beginnings of the faith
and of the various states that have played so important a
part in its history. The Arabs themselves have had, from
the earliest times, a keen sense for historical tradition and
an equally keen desire to preserve that tradition in writing.
There is, perhaps, no people of earlier times that has left us
so large an amount of documentary evidence as to its be-
ginnings as they have. The evidence, of course, needs sift-
ing and sorting according to the canons of criticism we
have learned to employ in all such cases. But, this work
cannot be done by Oriental scholars alone, whose time is
often taken up largely with the philological and literary
examination of the texts that have come down to us. It is,,
therefore, eminently a part of their duty to render these
texts accessible to students of history who are not masters
of the Arabic language.
Dr. Hitti has undertaken this task in connection with the
record of one of the earliest Arab historians whose work
has been preserved. Since its publication in 1866 by Pro-
fessor de Goeje, al-Baladhuri's " Futuh al-Buldan " has
been recognized as one of our chief authorities for the
period during which the Arab state was in process of for-
mation. This task of translating has not been a simple one :
proof is that the attempt has not been made before this.
The style of al-Baladhuri is often cryptic and unintelligible.
This is perhaps due to the fact that the work, as it has
reached us, is a shortened edition of a much larger one
vi FOREWORD
which, though existent up to the seventeenth century, has
not been found in any of the collections of manuscripts to
which we have access. In its present form, the work men-
tions often men and matters that probably were treated of
in the longer recension, but of which now we know nothing.
Dr. Hitti's translation is, therefore, in a certain sense also,
a commentary and an exposition. As such, I trust that it
will be found useful to Orientalists as well as to students of
history. His fine sense for the niceties of Arabic expres-
sion has often enabled him to get through a thicket that is
impenetrable to us Westerners.
Richard Gottheil.
Columbia University, January, 1916.
CONTENTS
PACE
Foreword
Introduction
Arabic Historiography with Special Reference to al-Balidhuri. i
PART I— ARABIA
I
Al-Madinah 15
II
The Possessions of the banu-an-Na<jlr 34
III
The Possessions of the bann-^uraixah 40
Chapter IV
Khaibar 42
Chapter V
Fadak SO
Chapter VI
Wadi-1-Kura and Taima' 57
Chapter VII
Makkah 60
VIII
The Wells of Makkah 77
IX
The Floods in Makkah 83
Chapter X
At-Ta'if $5
XI
Tabalah and Jurash 91
XII
Tabuk, Ailah, Adhnifc, Mafcna and al-Jarba' 02
XIII
Dumat al-Jandal 95
VII
viii CONTENTS
PAGE
Chapter XIV
The Capitulation of Najrin 98
Chapter XV
Al- Yaman 106
Chapter XVI
TJman 116
Chapter XVII
Al-Babrain 120
Chapter XVIII
Al-Yamamah 132
Chapter XIX
The Apostasy of the Arabs in the Caliphate of abu-Bakr as-
§iddife 143
Chapter XX
The Apostasy of the banu-Wali'ah and al-Ash'ath ibn-Kais ibn-
Ma'dikarib ibn-Mu'awiyah-1-Kindi 153
Chapter XXI
Al-Aswad al-'Ansi and those in al- Yaman who Apostatized
with him 159
PART II— SYRIA
Chapter I
The Conquest of Syria 165
Chapter II
The Advance of Khalid ibn-al-Walid on Syria and the Places
he Reduced on his Way 169
Chapter III
The Conquest of Busra 173
Chapter IV
The Battle of Ajnadin (or Ajnadain) 174
Chapter V
The Battle of Fifel in the Province of the Jordan 176
Chapter VI
The Province of the Jordan 178
Chapter VII
The Battle of Marj as-Suffar 182
Chapter VIII
The Conquest of Damascus and its Province 186
Chapter IX
Buns 200
CONTENTS ix
PAGE
Chapter X
The Battle of al-Yarmuk 207
Chapter XI
Palestine 213
Chapter XII
The Province of Kinnasrin and the Cities called al-'Awasim. . . 223
Chapter XIII
Cyprus 235
Chapter XIV
The Samaritans 244
Chapter XV
Al-Jarajimah 246
Chapter XVI
The Frontier Fortresses of Syria 253
PART III— MESOPOTAMIA
I
The Conquest of Mesopotamia [al-Jazirah] 269
II
The Christians of the banu-Taghlib ibn- Wi'il 284
III
The Fortifications of the Mesopotamian Frontier 287
IV
Arabic made the Language of the State Registers 301
PART IV— ARMENIA
I
The Conquest of Armenia 305
PART V— NORTHERN AFRICA
Chapter I
The Conquest of Egypt and al-Maghrib [Mauritania] 33$
Chapter II
The Conquest of Alexandria 346
Chapter III
The Conquest of Barman and Zawilah 352
Chapter IV
The Conquest of Tripoli 355
x CONTENTS
FACT
Chapter V
The Conquest of Ifrifciyah 356
Chapter VI
The Conquest of Tanjah [Tangier*] 363
PART VI— ANDALUSIA
Chaprk I
The Conquest of Andalusia 365
PART VII— ISLANDS IN THE SEA
I
The Conquest of Certain Islands in the Sea 37s
PART VIII— NUBIA
I
Terms made with Nubia 379
II
The Karatfs 383
PART IX— AL-1RA$ AND PERSIA
Chapter I
The Conquest of as-Sawad 387
The Caliphate of abu-Bakr as-Siddifc.
Chapter II
The Caliphate of 'Umax ibn-al-Khattab 401
Chapter III
The Battle of Kuss an-Nitff, or the Battle of al-Jisr 403
Chapter IV
The Battle of Mihran or an-Nukhailah 405
Chapter V
The Battle of al-Kadisiyah 409
Chapter VI
The Conquest of al-Mada'in 417
Chapter VII
The Battle of Jalula' 420
Chapter VIII
The Founding of al-Kuf ah 434
CONTENTS xi
PAGE
Chapter IX
Waat al-'Irafc 449
Chapter X
Al-Batf'* 453
XI
Madinat as-Salam 457
XII
Arabic made the Language of the Register 465
PART X— MEDIA [AL-JIBAL]
Chapter I
Qulwan 469
II
The Conquest of Nihawand 47*
III
Ad-Dinawar, Maaabadhan and MihrijanVadhaf 478
IV
The Conquest of Hamadhan 481
V
Kmnm, $ashan and Isbahan 485
VI
The Death of Yaxdajird ibn-Shahriyar ibn-Kisra ibn-Abarwiz
ibn-Hurmuz ibn-Anushirwan 400
495
Errata 517
INTRODUCTION
Arabic Historiography with Special Reference to
al-Baladhuri
Although rudimentary elements of historiography can
be traced back to the description of the " days ", i. e., the
battles between the tribes, and such stories as the " Ma' rib
dam ", " the owners of the elephant " and the digging of the
" Zamzam well " — all of pre-Islamic antiquity — , yet Arabic
historical writing, in the strict sense of the term, is a branch
of Islamic literature. Interest in Muhammad necessitated
the compilation of traditions (Ar. hadith) relating to the
life and campaigns of the Prophet and his companions. The
communistic theocracy of warriors under the early caliphs,
and particularly 'Umar's system of assigning state pensions
to Moslems according to their kinship to the Prophet, gave
impetus to the study of genealogy in which even pagan
Arabs, who attached special importance to descent, were
interested. The elucidation of passages in poetry, one of
the earliest and most fully-developed modes of expression
among the Arabs, and the necessity of determining persons
and places referred to in their religious literature made phil-
ologists apply themselves to historical research. The three
sources of Arabian history therefore are : ( I ) pre-Islamic
stories, (2) traditions relative to the life and campaigns of
the Prophet and the companions, and (3) genealogical lists
and poetical compositions. The earliest books of history
are: biography (sirah), books of campaigns (magh&si),
and books of genealogy and classes (ansab wc^tabakdt).
2 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
The domains of theology, law and history in their early rise
overlap and are not sharply defined from one another.
No student of Arabic literature fails to be impressed with
the fact that the bearers of the torch of learning among the
Arabs were in most cases of foreign and particularly of Per-
sian stock. This is to be explained by the fact that public
opinion considered it contemptible for the Arab to busy
himself with the pursuit of knowledge to the neglect of the
noble art of warring. To this general tendency, however,
studying anecdotes, transmitting traditions, and remember-
ing stories — especially if they commemorated the deeds of
heroes, orators and poets, formed a conspicuous example.
We read in al-Mas'udi x that Mu'awiyah the founder of the
Umaiyad dynasty " devoted one-third of the night to the
reading of the news and battles of the Arabs and non-
Arabs." We also read in al-Bayan* that al-Mansur the
Abbasid caliph after long hesitation decided to put abu-Mus-
lim al-Khurasani to death as a result of hearing an anec-
dote about Sapor the Persian king. One of the favorite
sayings in early Islam was the following found in
al'Ikd al-Farid * : " For kings the study of genealogy and
histories, for warriors the study of battles and biography,
and for merchants the study of writing and arithmetic."
The chief source from which history writing flowed was
tradition (hadith). It was a pious custom that when Mos-
lems met, one should ask for news (hadith), and the other
should relate a saying or anecdote of Muhammad. Each
event is related in words of eyewitnesses or contemporaries
and transmitted to the final narrator through a chain of in-
termediate reporters. The authenticity of the reported fact
1 Vol. v, p. 77, Paris, 1869.
'al-Jifciz, vol. ii, pp. I54-I55. Cairo, 1313 A. H.
• Vol. i, p. 198, Cairo, 1293 A. H.
ARABIC HISTORIOGRAPHY 3
depends on ( 1 ) the continuity of the chain and (2) the con-
fidence in each reporter. Thus would al-Baladhuri start
his narrative regarding the campaign of the Prophet against
Najran : 2 " Bakr ibn-al-Haitham related to me, that 'Ab-
dallah ibn-Salih related to him, on the authority of al-Laith
ibn-Sa'd, on the authority of Yunus ibn-Ziyad al-Aili, on
the authority of az-Zuhri, who said. . . ."
This form of historic composition is unique in the case
of the Arabs and meets the most essential requirements of
modern historiography, namely, " back to the source " and
" trace the line of authorities.' ' The system, however, has
its drawbacks in that it crystallized the record of events and
rendered deviation from the trodden path sacrilegious.
Aside from the use of judgment in the choice of isnad —
the series of authorities — the Arabian authors exercised
very little power of analysis, criticism, comparison or infer-
ence, their golden rule being " what has been once well said
need not be told again." At-Tabari, in the introduction to
his great work, gives expression to that principle, where,
conscious of the exception that many of his readers might
take to some of his reports, he pleads,2 " We only transmit
to others what has been transmitted to us."
Another way of handling traditions is that in which the
compiler combines different traditions into one continuous
whole, prefixing a statement of his authorities or contenting
himself by interrupting the narrative, wherever need may
be, by citing the particular authority. While al-Baladhuri
is an exponent of the former type and spares no pains in
basing every fact, whenever possible, on an independent
isnad, yet he sometimes resorts to the other method as he
himself acknowledges in the first lines of his Futuh (p. 15) :
* Futth ol-Buld&n, p. 98.
s Vol. i, p. 7, cd. Dc Goeje, Laden, 1879-1881.
4 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
" I have been informed by certain men learned in tradition,
biography and the conquest of the lands whose narratives I
transmitted, abridged and pieced up together into one
whole," etc. Where his store of authorities fails him, al-
Baladhuri introduces his narratives by " they said," or "he
said," or " it was said."
On a geographical basis, Moslem tradition may be grouped
into two categories : ( i ) that of al-Madinah as represented
by Muhammad ibn-Ishak and al-Wakidi, and (2) that of
al-'Irak. Notwithstanding the fact that al-Baladhuri lived
in Baghdad, the tradition of al-Madinah, which for obvious
reasons is more reliable than that of al-'Irak, forms the
basis of his works.
History, whose domain in the time of the first four
caliphs was not sharply defined, made its full appearance,
and was recorded for the first time under the sway of the
Umaiyads. According to al-Fihrist,1 Mu'awiyah ibn-abi-
Sufyin* summoned from al-Yaman one, 'Abid ibn-Shar-
yah, and asked him about past events, histories of the Arabs
and foreign kings and " ordered that the answers be re-
corded." This " book of the kings and past events," how-
ever, is lost.
The early favorite forms of writing history were biog-
raphy, genealogy and description of campaigns. The oldest
biography is Sirat Rasul Allah written for al-Mansur by
ibn-Ishak (d. 151/767). This we do not possess in its
original form but only in the recension of ibn-Hisham
(d. 213/834). Genealogy borders on biography and, call-
ing for elucidation, both lead on to history. Genealogical
books were first written in the Umaiyad period. The genea-
logical list served as an army roll. The study of tradition
1 p. 89, ed. Flugel. ■ caliph 41-60/661-680.
ARABIC HISTORIOGRAPHY 5
necessitated the study of the life and character of the re-
porter on whom the authenticity of the report depends.
Thus the reporters were classified into classes (tabakdt).
The most famous writer of tabakdt was ibn-Sa'd (d. 230),
the secretary of al-Wakidi and the compiler of Kitdb at-
Jabakat al-Kabir.
Campaigns playing an important role in the life of Mu-
hammad and the early caliphs soon began to assert their
claim for special attention and were treated in special books.
Besides, the necessity of recording and studying the cam-
paigns arose from the fact that in levying a tax (khardj) on
the conquered land, those in authority were first confronted
with the task of determining whether it was taken "by
peace ", " by capitulation ", or " by force ", and what the
terms in each case were. This gave rise to many books on
campaigns (maghazi), one of the oldest of which is al-
Wakidi's (d. 207/822). Some books were issued treating
of the conquest of one city, most of which books have been
lost. Given a number of books on the conquest of different
cities, the next step would be to compile them into one whole.
That step was taken by al-Baladhuri — the last great his-
torian of Moslem campaigns.
Before the Abbasid period no books on general history
were attempted. In the golden age of the Abbasid caliphate
and under Persian influence, historiography flourished and
developed a new form of composition. The translation of
such books as the Pehlevi Khuday-Natna by ibn-al-Mu-
kaffa' into the Arabic Kitdb al-Muluk, coupled with the fact
that the Moslem commonwealth was now richly recruited
by Persian converts, made the idea of chronological collo-
cation of events, for which the school of al-Madinah had
paved the way, develop to the plan of a complete series of
annals. The first to undertake such a history was at-fabari.
Thus the historian who at the rise of Islam was a tradition-
6 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
ist or reporter becomes now a chronicler. The annalistic
method of at-Tabari was followed by ibn-al-Athir and abu-
1-Fida.
Al-Mas'udi inaugurated a new system of writing history.
Instead of grouping events around years as center, he
grouped them around kings, dynasties and races. His sys-
tem was followed among others by ibn-Khaldun, but did
not win so much favor as that of at-Tabari.
The first record we have regarding the life of al-Balad-
huri is that of al-Fihrist.1 Other sources for his life are
Yakut, Mu'jam al-Udabd', (pp. 127-132),* and al-Kutubi,
Fawat al-Wafayat (Vol. I, pp. 8-9, Bulak, 1283). Ibn-
Khallikan refers to him on more than one occasion but does
not give his biography.* From these sources we learn that
Ahmad ibn-Yahya ibn-Jabir al-Baladhuri was a native of
Baghdad descended from Persian stock. His grandfather,
Jabir, was secretary to al-Khasib, minister of the finances of
Egypt under the caliph ar-Rashid. Ahmad was an intimate
friend of the caliphs al-Mutawakkil and al-Musta'in and
tutored 'Abdallah, the brilliant son of al-Mu'tazz. He dis-
tinguished himself in poetry — especially satires, tradition and
genealogy. The year 279/892 saw his death, mentally de-
ranged as a result of drinking the juice of the anacardia
(baladhur) ; hence his surname al-BalSdhuri. Besides writing
Futuh al-Buldan, which is a digest of a larger work that
has been lost, he wrote Ansdb al-Ashraf,A of which only two
volumes are preserved, one in the Schefer collection of the
'p. 113, ed. Flugcl.
1 Leiden, 1907, ed. Margoliouth.
9 See also de Goeje's introduction to al-Baladhuri ; and Hamaker,
Specimen Cotalogi, p. 7 seq.
4 Lineage of Nobles. See JJij ji Kfaalif ah, vol. i, pp. 455 and 274, ed.
Flugel, Leipzig, 1835.
ARABIC HISTORIOGRAPHY j
Bibliotheque Nationale,1 and the other has been autographed
by Ahlwardt* Al-Mas'udi 8 quotes al-Baladhuri's ar-Radd-
'alo ash-Shu' ubiyah (Refutation of ash-Shu'ubiyah),4 which
book is also lost
Of the works of al-Baladhuri the one that claims our
special attention is Futuh al-Bulddn* The book shares with
other books of Arabic history the advantage of tracing
the report back to the source. Being a synopsis of a larger
work, its style is characterized by condensation whereby it
gains in conciseness but loses in artistic effect and clear-
ness. Certain passages are mutilated and ambiguous. It
is free from exaggeration and the flaws of imagination.
Throughout the work the sincere attempt of the author to
get to the fact as it happened and to record it as it reached
him is felt. The chapters on colonization, soldier's pay,
land tax, coinage and the like make it especially valuable.
The book does not escape the weaknesses common to
Arabian histories. The " ipse dixit " which was a source
of strength was also a source of weakness. Once the words
supposed to have been uttered by a contemporary or eye-
witness are ascertained, the author feels his duty fulfilled,
and his function as a historian degenerates into that of a
reporter. The personal equation is not only reduced but
the personality of the author is almost eliminated, appear-
ing only as a recipient of a tradition. Scarcely an opinion
or remark is made. The intellect is not brought to bear on
the data.
* Dc Goeje, ZDM G, XXXVIII, 382-406.
* Greifswald, 1883. Cf. Noldeke, GGA, 1883, p. 1096 seq.; Thorbecke,
Lbl. Or. Phil., vol. i, pp. 155-156.
•Vol. iii, pp. 109-110.
'Goldziher, Muhamtnedanischt Studien, vol. i, p. 166.
» ed. De Goeje, Leiden, 1866. See Noldeke, GGA, 1863, 1341-1349.
8 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
A weak characteristic of Arabic historians is their utter
disregard of the social side of national life. Political his-
tory to them is history par excellence. It should, however,
be said, to the credit of al-Baladhuri, that while from a
modern standpoint he is defective in that respect, still he
stands superior to other historians.
As one reads Futuh al-Buldan and is struck by the fact
that a long chapter is devoted to the " digging of the wells
of Makkah ",* whereas the conquest of Tripoli, Africa, is
dismissed with a few words,3 he cannot help feeling his sense
of proportion suffer. Most of the two chapters entitled
" The Founding of al-Kufah " 8 and " of al-Basrah " 4 are
devoted to the explanation of the names given to b^ths,
canals and castles and only a small part relates to actual
colonization.
One might also add that Arabic historians were not
very sensitive on the question of indecency of language.
In general the language of Fut&h is clean, with the excep-
tion of the case of al-Mughirah, the governor of al-Basrah
under 'Umar.5
According to Haji Khalfa,* the first writers on biography
and campaigns were, among others, 'Urwah ibn-az-Zubair
(d. 93) and Wahb ibn-Munabbih (d. 114) ; and we read1
that Muhammad ibn-Muslim az-Zuhri wrote a book of cam-
paigns. These works are all lost and the first biography
we have is that of ibn-Hisham (d. 213) based on ibn-
Ishik (d. 151). Az-Zubair and az-Zuhri, as well as ibn-
Ishak, are among the sources of al-Baladhuri.
That in most cases the same tradition that underlies the
1 pp. 77-82. * pp. 355.
* PP. 434-448. 4 pp. 34£-372 in De Goeje's edition.
* PP« 344-345 in Dc Gocjc's edition. 6 Vol. v, p. 646.
Y In vol. v, pp. 154 and 647.
ARABIC HISTORIOGRAPHY g
life of Muhammad according to ibn-Hisham is made use
of by al-Baladhuri in the first chapters of his Futuh is made
evident by a comparison of the chapters on the banu-an-
Na<Jir , Khaibar and Tabuk. 1 Al-Baladhuri makes no mention
of ibn-Hisham but quotes ibn-Ishak eleven times. The isnad
in Baladhuri being longer, it might be conjectured that he
did not get his material at first hand from ibn-Ishak's work
but through subsequent reporters. Al-Mada'ini lived from
135-215 (753-830). He wrote a " history of the caliphs "
and a book of " campaigns ", both of which are lost and
are known only by excerpts through al-Baladhuri, at-Tabari
and Yakut. Of these, al-Baladhuri alone has over forty
citations from him.
Al-Wakidi (d. 207/823) wrote 28 books recorded in al-
Fihrist,* only a few of which have come down to us. Hav-
ing lived at Baghdad his works were certainly accessible to
al-Baladhuri, who quotes him on 80 different occasions and
more than any other source. Most of the quotations are
made through ibn-Sa'd, the secretary of al-Wakidi, and one
of al-Baladhuri's teachers. A comparison between the cam-
paigns against banu-an-Nadir ■ and banu-Kuraizah 4 in al-
Baladhuri, and the corresponding ones in al-Wakidi's
Kitdb al-Maghdzi* shows many points of contact but no
absolute interdependence.
Ibn-Sa'd (d. 230) being the disciple of al-Wakidi and the
professor of al-Baladhuri acted as a connecting link between
the two. In his Futuh, al-Baladhuri has 48 citations from
him, many of which were communicated by word of mouth
and were recorded verbatim by al-Baladhuri. In his book
1 Cf. Hisham, p. 652 and Baladhuri, p. 34; Hishim, p. 779 and Balid-
huri, p. 42.
*P. » 8P. 34.
*p. 40.
6 PP- 353 and 371, ed. von Kremcr, Calcutta, 1856.
IO THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
at-Tabakat {the Book of Classes), many striking similari-
ties to the traditions of al-Baladhuri are noticed.
Ad-Dinawari (d. 282/896) was another contemporary of
al-Baladhuri. He wrote a number of books of which only
one of importance has come down to us, i. e., al-Akhbdr at-
Tiwdl.1 Contrary to al-Baladhuri, al-'Irak tradition is the
basis of his work. It is probable that neither of the two
authors was familiar with the work of the other.
In addition to these, al-Baladhuri quotes many other au-
thorities of whom the most favorite ones are: Hammad
ibn-Salamah, Bakr ibn-al-Haitham, 'Amir ash-Sha'bi, Suf-
jan ibn-Sa'id ath-Thauri, 'Amr ibn-Muhammad an-Nakid
and Hisham ibn-al-Kalbi, most of whose works are either
unknown to us or have entirely disappeared.
The most illustrious writer on history after al-Baladhuri
was at-Tabari (d. 310). According to al-Fihrist and ibn-
Khallikan, he traveled in Egypt, Syria and al-'Irak in quest
of learning and died in Baghdad. At-Tabari makes no
mention of al-Baladhuri.
In the introduction to his remarkable work, Muruj adh-
Dhahab, al-Mas'udi (d. 346) cites scores of books from
which he drew his material, and among which he mentions
al-Baladhuri's paying it a high tribute in these words, " We
know of no better work on the history of the Moslem
conquests ".a
Not only did later historians draw freely from al-Bala-
dhuri but subsequent geographers used him extensively as a
source. The remarkable work of Yakut, Mu'jam al-Bul-
d&n, reproduces a great part of the book. Mukaddasi quotes
him,B and so al-Hamadhani,4 and al-Mas'udi.8
1 ed. Vladimir Guirgass, Leiden, 1888.
1 al-Mas'udi, p. 14, Paris, 1861.
*Afrsan at-Ta^Mm, 313.
*Kitdb al-Buldan, 303, 321. B KitSb at-Tonbih, 358, 360.
ARABIC HISTORIOGRAPHY 1 1
The above-sketched attempt to view al-Baladhuri in his
historic setting warrants the conclusion that the tradition
recorded by him was mostly communicated to him by word
of mouth and partly through books that have mostly been
lost, and that it was a source for al-Mas'udi and Yakut, and
through them for many subsequent Arabic historians and
geographers.
PART I
ARABIA
CHAPTER I
Al-Madinah
In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the
merciful, whose help i solicit!
The Prophet in al-Madinah. Says Ahmad ibn-Yahya
ibn-Jabir : —
I have been informed by certain men learned in tradition,
biography, and the conquest of the lands, whose narratives
I transmitted, abridged and pieced up together into one
whole, that when the Messenger of Allah emigrated from
Makkah to al-Madinah he was entertained as the guest of
Kalthum ibn-Hidm ibn-Amru'i-1-Kais ibn-al-Harith ibn-
Zaid ibn-'Ubaid ibn-Umaiyah ibn-Zaid ibn-Malik ibn-'Auf
ibn-*Amr ibn-'Auf ibn-Malik ibn-al-Aus 1 in Kuba\2 So
much, however, of his discourse was carried on in the home
of Sa'd ibn-Khaithamah ibn-al-Harith ibn-Malik of [the
tribe of] banu-as-Salim ibn-Amru'i-1-Kais ibn-Malik ibn-al-
Aus that some thought he was the guest of the latter.*
Kuba Mosque. Of the Companions of the Prophet, the
early Emigrants together with those of the Ansdr* who
had joined him had already built a mosque at Kuba' to pray
in, prayer at that time being directed towards Bait-al-
Makdis [Jerusalem]. Now, when the Prophet arrived in
1 Ibn-Qajar, Kitab al-Isdbah, vol. iii, pp. 613-614.
*A suburb of al-Madinah; see Yafcut, Mu'jam ol-Buld&n, vol. iv,
pp. 23-24.
* Ibn-Hisham, Sirat Rasul Alldh, p. 334.
4 The Helpers — originally applied to the early converts of al-Madinah.
IS
l6 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Kuba', he led them in prayer in it. That is why the people
of Kuba' say that it is the one meant by Allah when he
says: "There is a mosque founded from its first day in
piety. More worthy that thou enter therein." l Others
report that the " mosque founded in piety " is that of the
Prophet [in al-Madinah].
Abu- Amir ar-Rahib. 'Affan ibn-Muslim as-Saffar from
— _——___ _ _ _ — __ — * •
'Urwah 2 who gave the following explanation to the text :
41 There are some who have built a mosque for mischief and
for infidelity, and to disunite the ' Believers,' and in ex-
pectation of him who, in time past, warred against Allah
and his Messenger " : — The mosque of Kuba' was built by
Sa'd ibn-Khaithamah and its site was owned by Labbah *
where she used to tie up her donkey. The dissenters there-
fore said : " Should we pray on a spot where Labbah used
to tie up her donkey ? Never. Rather shall we select for our-
selves some other place for prayer until abu-'Amir * comes
and leads our service." Now, abu-'Amir had fled from the
face of Allah and his Prophet to Makkah and thence to
Syria where he was converted to Christianity. Hence the
text revealed by Allah : " There are some who have built a
mosque for mischief and for infidelity and to disunite the
' Believers,' and in expectation of him who, in time past,
warred against Allah and his Messenger " — referring to
abu-'Amir.
Rauh ibn-'Abd-al-Mu'min al-Makri from Sa'id ibn-
Jubair : — Banu-'Amr ibn-'Auf erected a mosque in which the
1 Koran, 9 : 109.
'The series of authorities introducing a tradition have been cut
short throughout the translation, only the first and last authorities
being mentioned.
■"Lajja" in F. Wustenfeld, Geshickte der Stadt Medina, p. 131.
4 Ibn-Hisham, pp. 561-562; and Geschichte der Stadt Medina, p. 53.
AL-MAD1NAH
17
Prophet led them in prayer. This aroused the jealousy of
their brothers banu-Ghanm ibn-'Auf who said, "If we,
too, could erect a mosque and invite the Prophet to pray in
is as he prayed in our friends' ! Abu-'Amir, too, may pass
here on his way from Syria and lead us in prayer." Ac-
cordingly, they erected a mosque and sent an invitation to
the Prophet to come and pray in it. But no sooner had
the Prophet got up to start, than the following text was
revealed to him : " There are some who have built a mosque
for mischief and for infidelity and to disunite the 'Believers,'
and in expectation of him who, in time past, warred against
Allah and his Messenger/' the one meant being abu-'Amir,
"never set thou foot in it. There is a mosque founded
from its first day in piety. More worthy it is that thou
enter therein. Therein are men who aspire to purity and
Allah loveth the purified. Which of the two is best? He
who hath founded his building on the fear of Allah and the
desire to please him," etc., referring to the mosque of £uba\ 4
Muhammad ibn-Hatim ibn-Maimun from al-Hasan: —
• • •
When the text, " Therein are men who aspire to purity "
was revealed, the Prophet communicated with those who
prayed in the mosque of Kuba' asking about the meaning of
the purity mentioned in connection with their name, and
they replied, " We, Prophet of Allah, wash after voiding
excrement and urine."
" The mosque founded in piety." Muhammad ibn-
Hatim from 'Amir : — Some of the people of Kuba' used to
wash with water the place of exit of the excrement.1 Hence
the text, " They aspire to purity."
'Amr ibn-Muhammad an-Nakid and Ahmad ibn-Hisham
• • •
from Sahl ibn-Sa'd : — Two men in the time of the Prophet
disagreed regarding the " mosque founded in piety," the one
1 Cf. az-Zamakhshari, Kashshaf, vol. i, p. 564 (ed. Lees).
1% THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
contending it was the Prophet's mosque, the other, the
]£uba' mosque. They finally came and asked the Prophet
to which he replied, " It is this mosque of mine." 1
'Amr ibn-Muhammad from ibn-'Umar: — The "mosque
founded in piety " is the mosque of the Prophet.
Muhammad ibn-Hatim from Ubai ibn-Ka'b : — In answer
to a question directed to the Prophet regarding the " mosque
founded in piety," the Prophet replied : "It is this my
mosque."
Hudbah ibn-Khalid from Sa'id ibn-al-Musaiyib who said
regarding the " mosque founded in piety " that the great
mosque of the Prophet is the one meant.
A tradition to the same effect is reported by 'Ali ibn-
'Abdallah al-Madini on the authority of Kharijah ibn-Zaid
ibn-Thabit and by 'Affan on the authority of Sa'id ibn-al-
Musaiyib, and by Muhammad ibn-Hatim ibn-Maimun as-
Samin on the authority of 'Abd-ar-Rahman ibn-abi-Sa'id
al-Khudri's father.
Kuba* mosque was later enlarged and added to. When
'Abdallah ibn-'Umar entered it for prayer, he always turned
his face to the " polished column " * ; and that was the place
where the Prophet always prayed.
The Prophet arrives at al-Madinah. The Prophet spent
in Kuba* Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday,
riding away on Friday for al-Madinah. Friday prayer he
performed in a mosque erected by banu-Salim ibn-*Auf ibn-
'Amr ibn-'Auf ibn-al-Khazraj, that being the first Friday on
which he led public prayer. Then the Prophet passed by
the houses of the Ansdr one by one * and each one of them
offered to entertain him. He kept his way, however, until
1 Baidawi, Anwar at -Tamil, vol. i, p. 401.
%Geschichte der Stadt Medina, p. 65.
* Ibn-Hisham, p. 336.
AL-MAD1NAH jg
he arrived at the site of his mosque in al-Madinah where his
camel knelt.1 He dismounted. Then came abu-Aiyub
Khalid ibn-Zaid . . . a ibn-al-Khazraj who took off the saddle
of the Prophet's camel. The Prophet took up his abode at
abu-Aiyub's.* Certain Khazrajis invited the Prophet, but
he retorted, " Man is where his camel's saddle is." He re-
mained at abu-Aiyub's for seven months. He took up his
residence there after [Friday-] prayer, one month since his
departure [from Makkah]. The Ansar presented to the
Prophet all the unoccupied parts of their lands, saying, " O
Prophet of Allah, take our own dwellings if thou wish."
But he said, "No!"
The mosque of the Prophet. Abu-Umamah * As'ad ibn-
Zurarah ibn-'Udas ibn-'Ubaid ibn-Tha'labah ibn-Ghanm
ibn-Malik ibn-an-Najjar, JVa/M6-in-chief,5 used to conduct
Friday prayers for his Moslem followers in a mosque of his
own in which the Prophet, too, used to pray. The Prophet,
thereafter, requested As'ad to sell him a piece of land con-
tiguous to this mosque. The land was in the hands of As'ad
but belonged to two orphans in his custody whose names
were Sahl and Suhail sons of RSfi' ibn-abi-'Amr ibn-'A'idh
ibn-Tha'labah ibn-Ghanm.6 As'ad proposed to offer it to
the Prophet and to pay its price to the orphans himself.
But the Prophet refused and paid for its price ten dinars,7
1 Ibn-Sa'd, Kitab af-Taba^dt, vol. i1, p. 160.
1 In this and in other cases to come, the genealogical table has been
cut short in the translation.
* Ad-Diyarbakri, al-Khamis, vol. i, p. 386.
4 Geschichte dtr Stadt Medina, p. 60.
kNa%%b is the superintendent of a people who takes cognizance of
their actions and is responsible for them; ibn-Qajar, vol. i, pp. 61-63.
9 Ibn-Hisham, p. 503.
T A gold coin worth about ten shillings.
20 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
which money he secured from abu-Bakr as-Siddik. By the
Prophet's orders, bricks were prepared and used for build-
ing the mosque. Its foundations were laid with stones;
its roof was covered with palm branches; and its columns
were made of trunks of trees.1 When abu-Bakr became
caliph he introduced no changes in the mosque. When
'Urnar was made caliph he enlarged it and asked al-' Abbas
ibn-'Abd-al-Muttalib to sell his house that he might add it
to the mosque. Al-' Abbas offered the house as a gift to
Allah and the Moslems ; and 'Umar added it to the mosque.
In his caliphate, 'Uthman ibn-'Affan reconstructed the
mosque with stone and gypsum, making its columns of stone,
and its roof of teak-wood. 'Uthman also added to the
mosque and carried to it small pebbles from al-' Akik.8 The
first caliph to plant in it tnaksurah* was Marwan ibn-al-
Hakam ibn-abi-l-'Asi ibn-Umaiyah who made his tnaksurah
of carved stones. No change was thereafter introduced in
the mosque until al-Walid ibn-'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan
succeeded his father. This al-Walid wrote to his 'amil [lieu-
tenant, governor] in al-Madinah, 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz,
ordering him to destroy the mosque and reconstruct it.
Meanwhile, he forwarded to him money, mosaic, marble, and 7
eighty Greek and Coptic artisans from Syria and Egypt.
Accordingly, the 'amil rebuilt it and added to it, entrusting
the supervision of its work and the expenditure for it to
Salih ibn-Kaisan, a f reedman of Su'da, a f reedmaid of the
family of Mu'aikib ibn-abi-Fatimah ad-Dausi. This took
place in the year 87, some say 88.* After this, no caliph
1 Al-Hamadhani, Kitab al-Buldan, p. 24.
1 Hamadhani, Kit&b cti-Buld&n, p. 25.
* Sec JAOS., vol. xxvii, pp. 273-274, Gottheil, " a distinguished fam-
ily of Fatimite Cadis "; and GeschichU der Stadt Medina, p. 71.
4 GeschichU der Stadt Medina, p. 73.
AL-MADINAH 21
made changes in the mosque down to the time of al-Mahdi's
caliphate.
According to al-Wakidi, al-Mahdi sent 'Abd-al-Malik
ibn-Shabib al-Ghassani and another1 descended from 'Umar
ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz to al-Madinah to reconstruct its mosque
and increase it in size. The governor of al-Madinah was
at that time Ja'far ibn-Sulaiman ibn-'Ali. It took these
two one year to carry out the undertaking. One hundred
cubits [ Ar. dhird'] were added to the rear, making its length
300 cubits and its width 200.
According to 'Ali ibn-Muhammad al-Mada'ini, al-Mahdi
appointed Ja'far ibn- Sulaiman to the governorship of
Makkah, al-Madinah and al-Yamamah. Ja'far enlarged the
mosques of Makkah and al-Madinah, the work in the latter
being completed in the year 162. Al-Mahdi had visited
Makkah before the pilgrimage season, in the year [ 1 ]6o, and
ordered that the mak surah be supplanted and that it be
put on the same level with the mosque.
In the year 246, caliph Ja'far al-Mutawakkil ordered that
the mosque of al-Madinah be repaired. Much mosaic was
subsequently carried to it; and the year 247 marked the
completion of the work.
'Amr ibn-Hammad ibn-abi-Hanifah from 'A'ishah : — The
Prophet said: "All districts or cities were conquered by
force, but al-Madinah was conquered by the Koran."
The inviolability of al-Madinah. Shaiban ibn-abi-
Shaibah-1-Ubulli from al-Hasan: — The Prophet said:
" Every prophet can make a place inviolable, so I have made
al-Madinah inviolable as Abraham had made Makkah. Be-
tween its two Harrahs,2 its herbage shall not be cut, its trees 8
1<Abdallih ibn-'Asim; De Goeje's edition of Baladhuri, p. 7, note b.
'The word means tracts of black stones, i. e., the volcanic region in
the vicinity of al-Madinah.
22 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
shall not be felled,1 nor should weapons be carried in it for
fight. He, therefore, who does that or harbors in his home
one who has done so, may be cursed of Allah and his
angels and all men. From him no repentance or ransom
shall be accepted."
Rauh ibn-'Abd-al-Mu'min al-Basri-1-Makri from abu-
• • •
Hurairah : — The Prophet said : "My Lord, Abraham was thy
servant and messenger, and so am I thy servant and mes-
senger. And I have made inviolable all that lies between
its two stony tracts as Abraham had made Makkah inviol-
able." Abu-Hurairah used to say : "By him who holds my
life in his hands, even if I should find the deer in Batihan *
* a a
I would not care for them."
Shaiban ibn-abi-Shaibah from Muhammad ibn-Ziyad's
grandfather (a freedman of 'Uthman ibn-Maz'un and the
holder of a piece of land belonging to the Maz'un family in
Harrah) who said : — " 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab with his robe
on his head would sometimes call on me at midnight,
take a seat and converse with me. I would then bring him
cucumbers and vegetables. But one day he said : * Go not :
I have made thee superintendent of this place. Let no one
beat a tree with a stick [that its leaves may fall] or cut off
a tree (referring to the trees of al-Madinah) ; and if thou
find anyone doing it, take away his rope and ax.' When
I asked him, ' Shall I take his robe?' he answered, ' No \"
Abu-Mas'ud ibn-al-Kattat from Ja'far ibn-Muhammad's
father : — The Prophet declared inviolable all trees growing
between Uhud and 'Air, allowing [only] the driver of the
water-carrying camel to cut <A-ghadLah trees and use them
for repairing his ploughs and carts.
1 Al-Bukhari, al-J&mf os-Sahih, vol. i, p. 40.
* Also Bathin or Buthan ; see al-Hamdani, Sifat lasirat ol-'Arab, p.
124, line 9.
* " Of the genus Euphorbia with a woody stem, often 5 or 6 ft in
height, and innumerable round green twigs" — Palgrave's Travels,
vol. i. p. 38.
AL-MADtNAH 23
Hitna ar-Rabadhah. Bakr ibn-al-Haitham from Zaid ibn-
Aslam's father who said : — " I heard 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab
say to one 1 whom he placed in charge of Hitna9 ar-Rabadhah
and whose name Bakr forgot, * Stretch not thy wing* to any 9
Moslem. Beware the cry of the oppressed, for it is an-
swered. Admit [to the Hitna] the owner of the small herd
of camels and sheep but keep off the cattle of ibn-'Affan
and ibn-'Auf ; for if their cattle should perish they resort to
sowing, whereas if the cattle of this poor man perish, he
comes to me crying, " O, commander of the believers! O,
commander of the believers!" To offer grass is easier for
the Moslems than to offer money in gold and silver.4 By
Allah, this is their land for which they fought in pre-
Islamic time and which was included in their terms when
they became Moslem. They would, therefore, certainly feel
that I oppress them; and had it not been for the cattle
[secured by declaring a place Hitna] to be used in the cause
of Allah, I would never make a part of a people's land
Hitna9.'9
Hitna an-NakY. Al-Kasim ibn-Sallam abu-'Ubaid from
ibn-'Umar : — The Prophet declared an-Naki' hitna and re-
served it for the Moslem cavalry.5 Abu-'Ubaid told me
that it is an an-Naki' [and not al-Baki', as some have it]
and that the handakuk plant [sweet trefoil] grows in it.
. Mus'ab ibn-'Abdallah az-Zubairi from Sa'd ibn-abi-
1 Whose name was Hunai ; Bukhari, vol. ii, p. 263.
'Reservation, pasture land reserved for tfce public use of a com-
munity or tribe to the exclusion of everyone else. Rabadhah was a
district and a village 5 miles from al-Madinah.
•Treat leniently, see ibn-al-Athir, an-Nih&yoh, vol. Hi, p. 26.
4i. e., it is easier to let the owner of the little herd feed his flock on
the ffima than to give him money for sustaining his children.
* Geschichte der Stadt Medina, p. 155 ; Wakidi, Kitdb al-Maghasi, pp.
183-184. Nafci' lay 20 parasangs from Madinah.
24 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Wakkas: — The latter once found a young servant felling
trees in the hima [reserved land]. He beat the servant
and took his ax. The servant's mistress, or a woman of
his kin, went to 'Umar and accused Sa'd. 'Umar ordered
that the ax and the clothes be returned. But Sa'd refused
saying, " I will not give up spoils given me by the Prophet
whom I heard say, * Whomever ye find cutting trees in the
hima, ye should beat and deprive of what he has/ " From
the ax Sa'd made a shovel which he used in his property
to the end of his life.
Al-Ghabah. Abu-1-Hasan al-Mada'ini from ibn-Ju'dubah
and abu-Ma'shar : — When the Prophet was at Zuraib (prob-
ably on his return from the expedition of dhu-Kard) banu-
Harithah of the Ansdr said to him referring to the site of
al-Ghabah [forest], "This is the place for our camels to
go loose, and for our sheep to graze, and for our women
to go out." The Prophet then ordered that he who had
cut off a tree should replace it by planting a small shoot.
Thus was al-Ghabah planted with trees.
Wddi-Mahsur. ' Abd-al-A'la ibn-Hammad an-Narsi from
abu-Malik ibn-Tha'labah's father : — The Prophet decreed in 10
the case of Wadi-Mahzur x that the water be shut off on the
the surface until it rises to the two ankles, at which it should
be conducted to the other place, thus preventing the owner
of the higher property from holding the water from the
owner of the lower one.
Ishak ibn-abi-Isra'il from 'Abd-ar-Rahman ibn-al-
• • •
Harith : — The Prophet decreed in the case of the Mahzur
torrent that the owner of the higher property should hold
the water until it rises to the two ankles, at which he must
let it go to the holder of the lower land.
1One of the valleys of Madinah, see al-Bakri, Kitab Mu'jam Mo-s-
ta'jam, vol. ii, p. 562.
AL-MAD1NAH 25
'Amr ibn-Hammad ibn-abi-Hanifah from 'Abdallah ibn-
abi-Bakr ibn-Muhammad ibn-'Amr ibn-Hazm al-Ansari's
father : — The Prophet decreed in the case of Mahzur torrent
and Mudhainib * that the water be shut in until it reaches
the two ankles, then the upper supplies the lower. Accord-
ing to Malik, the Prophet passed a similar judgment in the
case of Batihan torrent.
Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad al-'Ijli from abu- Malik ibn-
Tha'labah ibn-abi-Malik's father : — The Prophet was called
upon to decide in the case of Mahzur, the valley of banu-
Kuraizah, upon which he decreed that water rising above
the two ankles cannot be shut in by the higher owner from
the lower owner.
Al-Husain from Ja'far ibn-Muhammad's father: — The
Prophet decreed in the case of Mahzur torrent that the
owners of palm trees have right to the ankle-high water,
sowers have right to the water as high as the two straps of
the sandal, after which the water is sent to the lower owners.
Hafs ibn-'Umar ad-Duri from 'Urwah: — The Prophet n
said : " Batihan is one of the channels of Paradise."
'Ali ibn-Muhammad al-Mada'ini abu-1-Hasan from Tu'-
dubah and others: — In the caliphate of 'Uthman, al-
Madinah was threatened with destruction by the Mahzur
torrent, which necessitated the erection of a dam by
'Uthman. Abu-1-Hasan added that in the year 156 the tor-
rent brought a terrifying volume of water. The governor
at that time. 'Abd-as-Samad ibn-'Ali ibn-' Abdallah ibn-
al-'Abb&s, sent 'Ubaidallah ibn-abi-Salamah-l-'Umri who,
with a big crowd, started after the afternoon prayer to see
the torrent which had, by that time, covered the sadakah-
lands2 of the Prophet. An old woman from al-'Aliyah-
1 " Mudhainib " in al-Bakri, pp. 518, 562.
'Mawardi, al-Ahkdm os-Sulfdniyah, p. 292. Sada^ah is a portion
which a man gives from his property to the poor by way of propitia-
tion. It is primarily superogatory, whereas zakat is obligatory.
26 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
region 1 pointed out to them a spot to which she had often
heard people refer. There they dug and the water found
exit through which it passed to fForff-Batihan. From
Mahzur to Mudhainib is a water-course which empties its
water in it.
The Prophet calls al-Madinah Taybdh. Muhammad ibn-
Aban al-Wasiti from al-Hasan: — The Prophet invoked
Allah's blessing on al-Madinah and its inhabitants calling
it Taybah.*
Abu-'Umar Hafs ibn-'Umar ad-Duri from 'A'ishah, the
mother of the believers: — When the Prophet emigrated to
al-Madinah, a disease spread among the Moslems in it.
Among those taken seriously ill were abu-Bakr, Bilal and
'Amir ibn-Fuhairah. During his illness, abu-Bakr often re-
peated the following verse : *
"One in the morning may lie amidst his family
and death may be nearer to him than his sandal's strap." 4
Bilal often repeated the following:
" O, would I that I spent a night
at Fakh where idhkhir and jalil* plants surround me!
And would that I some day visit Majannah-water to drink it,
and see Shamah and Tafil [Mts.] 1"
'Amir ibn-Fuhairah used to repeat the following :
" I have found death before I tasted it, ^2
verily the death of the coward comes from above.6
[Man struggles according to his own ability,]
like the bull that protects his skin with his horn." 7
1 Yakut, s.v. 'Aliyah.
1 Al-Hamadhani, Kitdb al-Bulddn, p. 23 ; Geschichte der Stadt Medina,
p. 10.
* Hish&m, p. 414; Azrafei, Akhb&r Makkah, p. 383.
* Cf. Freytag, Ardbum Proverbia, vol. i, p. 492, no. 63.
* Idhkhir a small plant of sweet smell used for roofing houses. JolU
a weak plant with which the interstices of houses are stopped up.
* Freytag, Proverbia, vol. i, p. 7, no. 10.
7 Az-Zamakhshari, al-Faffy, vol. ii, pp. 5-6.
AL-MAD1NAH
27
This was reported to the Prophet and he prayed : " Make
al-Madinah, O Allah, wholesome for us as thou hast made
Makkah for us, and bless for us its sa' and tnudd 1 [grain
measures] !"
The water-course of al-Harrah. Al-Walid ibn-Salih
from 'Urwah : — One of the Ansdr had a dispute with az-
Zubair ibn-al-'Auwam regarding the water-courses that run
from al-Harrah to the plain. The Prophet said, " Zubair,
use the water, then turn it to thy neighbor." *
Al-'Akik as fief. Husain ibn-'Ali ibn-al-Aswad al-'Ijli
from Hisham ibn-'Urwah's father: — As 'Umar was par-
celling al-'Akik into fiefs, he came to a part of it regarding
which he remarked, " I never gave such a land in fief." To
this Khauwat ibn-Jubair replied, " Give it out to me." And
'Umar did.
Al-Husain from Hisham ibn-'Urwah's father: — 'Umar
gave al-'Akik in fief from its upper to its lower end.
Al-Husain from Hisham ibn-'Urwah: — 'Umar accom-
panied by az-Zubair set out to distribute fiefs, and as
'Umar was giving them out, he passed by al-'Akik and said :
"Where are the seekers of fiefs? I have not yet today
passed by a more fertile land." Az-Zubair said : " Give
it out to me." And 'Umar did.
A similar tradition was communicated by al-Husain from
Hisham ibn-'Urwah's father. 13
Khalaf ibn-Hisham al-Bazzar from Hisham ibn-'Urwah's
father who said : — "Umar ibn-al-Khattab gave out as fief to
Khauwat ibn-Jubair al-Ansari a piece of dead land. This
we bought from him."
A similar tradition was communicated to me by al-Husain
ibn-al-Aswad on the authority of Hisham's father.
1 Wakidi, al-M aghast, p. 14; al-Azraki, p. 582.
'One tradition occurring here and defining certain terms in the pre-
vious tradition has been omitted in the translation. Evidently it is a
gloss.
28 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Other fiefs. Al-Husain from 'Urwah : — Abu-Bakr gave
out as fief to az-Zubair the land lying between al-Jurf x and
Kanah.3 Abu-1-Hasan al-Mada'ini told me that Kanah is
a valley stretching from at-Ta'if to al-Arhadiyah and
Karkarat al-Kudr and thence it comes to Sudd-Ma'unah
from which it runs by the end of al-Kadum and ends at the
head of Kubur ash-Shuhada' [martyrs' tombs] at Uhud.
Abu-'Ubaid al-Kasim ibn-Sallam from certain learned
men : — The Prophet gave out as fief to Bilal ibn-al-Harith
al-Muzani certain mines * in the Furu' district.
'Amr an-Nakid and ibn-Sahm al-Antaki from abu-
'Ikrimah the f reedman of Bilal ibn-al-Harith al-Muzani : —
The Prophet gave out as fief to Bilal a piece of land having
a mountain and mines. The sons of Bilal sold a part of it
to 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz in which one mineral (or he
may have said two) appeared. The sons of Bilal there-
upon said : " What we sold thee is not the minerals but the
tillable land." Then they brought forth a statement written
for them by the Prophet on a palm leaf which 'Umar kissed
and with which he rubbed his eye saying to his steward:
" Find out what the income and the expenses are, retain
what thou hast expended, and give them back the balance."
Abu-'Ubaid from Bilal ibn-al-Harith : — The Prophet gave
out all al-'Akik as fief to Bilal.
The zakat on the metals. Mus'ab az-Zubairi from Malik
ibn-Anas: — The Prophet assigned as fief to Bilal ibn-al-
Harith certain mines in the Furu' district. On this, all 14
our learned men agree. Nor do I know of any disagree-
1 Called 'Arsat al-Bakal in al-Wafcidi's days, see Wakidi, tr. Wcll-
hausen, pp. 103-104.
SA valley near Mount Thaib, one day's journey from Madinah.
*The mines of al-Kabaliyah, see al-Mutarrizi, Kit&b al-Mughrib,
vol. ii, p. 108.
AL-MAD1NAH 2g
ment among our followers regarding the fact that in the
case of mines the zakat is one-fourth of the tithe. It is re-
ported that az-Zuhri often repeated that in the case of
mines zakat is binding. It is moreover reported that he
said that the zakat is one-fifth. That is what the people of
al-'Irak say who at present impose on the mines of al-Furu',
Najran, dhu-1-Warwah, Widi-1-Kura and others one-fifth in
accordance with the view of Sufyan ath-Thauri, abu-
Hanifah, abu-Yusuf and the school of al-'Irak.1
'All's fiefs. Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from Ja'far ibn-
Muhammad: — The Prophet assigned to 'Ali as fief four
pieces of land, i. e., the two Fukairs, Bi'r-Kais, and
ash-Shajarah.'
A similar tradition was communicated to me by al-Husain
on the authority of Ja'far ibn- Muhammad.
'Amr ibn-Muhammad an-Nakid from Ja'far ibn-Muham-
mad's father : — 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab assigned to ' Ali as fief
Yanbu*,* and another piece was added to it.
A similar tradition was communicated to me by al-Husain
on the authority of Ja'far ibn-Muhammad's father.
The well of 'Urwah, the reservoir of 'Amr and the canal
of Banat-Na'ilah, etc. The next tradition was communi-
cated to me by one in whom I trust on the authority of
Mus'ab ibn'Abdall&h az-Zubairi : — The well of 'Urwah ibn-
az-Zubair is named after 'Urwah ibn-az-Zubair ; the 'Amr
reservoir is named after 'Amr ibn-az-Zubair; the canal of
Banat-Na'ilah is named after children of Na'ilah, daughter
of al-Farafisah-1-Kalbiyah and wife of 'Uthman ibn-'Affan
('Uthman had taken possession of this canal and conveyed
1 Malik ibn- Anas, al-Mudouwanah, vol. iif p. 47; ash-Shafi'i, Kitab
oi-Umm, vol. ii2, p. 36.
•Yikut, vol. iii, pp. 260-261.
1 Yi^ut, vol. iv, pp. 1038- 1039.
30
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
its water to a piece of land at al-'Arsah * which he culti-
vated and worked) ; the land of abu-Hurairah is ascribed
to abu-Hurairah ad-Dausi ; and as-Sahwah in Mt. Juhainah
is the sadakah of 'Abdallah ibn-' Abbas.
Kasr-Nafis. It is said that the Nafis castle is ascribed to
Nafis at-Tajir [the merchant] ibn-Muhammad ibn-Zaid
ibn-'Ubaid ibn-al-Mu'alla ibn-Laudhan ibn-Harithah ibn-
Zaid of al-Khazraj, the allies of banu-Zuraik ibn-'Abd-
Harithah of al-Khazraj. This castle stands in Harrat-
Wakim at al-Madinah. 'Ubaid ibn-al-Mu'alla died as martyr 15
in the battle of Uhud. Others say it is Nafis ibn-Muham-
mad ibn-Zaid ibn-'Ubaid ibn-Murrah, Mu'alla's freedman.
This 'Ubaid and his father were among the captives of
'Ain at-Tamr. 'Ubaid ibn-Murrah died in the battles of
al-Harrah. His surname was abu-' Abdallah.
'A'ishah well The 'A'ishah well is ascribed to 'A'ishah
ibn-Numair ibn-Wakif, 'A'ishah being a man's name of
al-Aus.
Al-Muttalib well and al-Murtaff well Al-Muttalib well
on the 'Irak road is ascribed to al-Muttalib ibn-' Abdallah
• • •
ibn-Hantab ibn-al-Harith ibn-'Ubaid ibn-'Umar ibn-Makh-
• • •
zum. Ibn-al-Murtafi* well is ascribed to Muhammad ibn-
al-Murtafi' ibn-an-Nadir al-'Abdari.
The Suk in al-Madinah. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from
'Ata ibn-Yasar, the freedman of Maimunah, daughter of
al-Harith ibn-Hazn ibn-Bujair of al-Hilal tribe: — When
the Prophet wanted to found a market in al-Madinah he
said : " This is your market and no kharaj will be assessed
on it."
The 'Arim dam. A1-* Abbas ibn-Hisham al-Kalbi from
his grandfather and Sharki ibn-al-Kutami-1-Kalbi : — When
Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Jerusalem,2 expelled of the
1 See Yakut, al-Mushtarik, p. 159.
2 Bait al-Makdis or al-Bait al-Mukaddas. See ibn-Khurdadhbih,
Kitab al-Masalik, pp. 78 and 79.
AL-MADINAH 3I
Israelites those whom he expelled, and carried away those
whom he carried into captivity, some Israelites fled away to
al-Uijaz and settled in Wadi-1-Kura, Taima', and Yathrib.
At that time there lived in Yathrib a tribe of Jurhum and a
remnant of al-' Amalik who lived on date-planting and wheat-
growing. Among these, the Israelites settled and asso-
ciated with them, and kept increasing in number, as Jurhum
and al-# Amalik were decreasing, until the former drove the
latter from Yathrib and established their authority over it,
taking possession of their cultivated and pasture lands.
This was their condition for a long time. Then it came to
pass that those of the people of al-Yaman descended from
Saba ibn-Yashjub ibn-Ya'rub ibn-Kahtan were filled with
the spirit of oppression and tyranny and ignored the grace
of their God in regards to the fertility and luxury he be-
stowed on them. Consequently, Allah created rats that began
to bore the dam, which stood between two mountains and
had pipes which the people could open when they wished
and get as much water as they wanted. This is the 'Arim
dam.1 The rats went on working on the dam until it was 16
broken through. Thus did Allah let their gardens sink and
their trees disappear, changing them into khamt,* tamarisk
and some few jujube trees.*
The wanderings of aX~Azd. Seeing what happened,
Muzaikiyah i. e. 'Amr ibn-'Amir . . . ibn-Amru'i-1-Kais
. . . ibn-Ya'rub ibn-Kahtan sold all the property and cattle
he possessed, summoned the Azd and started together to the
land of the tribe of 'Akk. There they settled. 'Amr re-
marked : " To seek herbage before knowledge is weakness."
The tribe of 'Akk were distressed at the fall of their best
1 Koran, 34: 15.
*A tree with bitter fruit.
« GGA, 1863, p. 1348.
32
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
lands into the hands of al-Azd and asked the latter to evacu-
ate the land. Thereupon a one-eyed and deaf man of al-
Azd, named Jidh', made an attack on a 'Akk party and de-
stroyed them. This resulted in a war between al-Azd and
'Akk. The Azd, after being defeated, returned and charged,
in reference to which Jidh* composed the following verse :
" We are the descendants of Mazin — there is no doubt,
the Ghassan of Ghassan versus the 'Aide of 'Akk,
and they shall see whether we or they are the weaker."
(Previous to this al-Azd had settled near a spring called
Ghassan. Hence their name, Ghassan. ) x Al-Azd now set
off until they arrived in the land of Hakam ibn-Sa'd al-
'Ashirah . . . ibn Ya'rub ibn-Kahtan. There they fought
and won the victory over Hakam. But it occurred to them
to move, and they did, leaving a small band behind. The
next place they came to was Najran. Here they met re-
sistance from the inhabitants of the place but finally won
the victory. After settling in Najran they departed with
the exception of a few who had special reasons to stay.
Al-Azd then arrived in Makkah which was populated with
the Jurhum tribe. They made their abode in Batn-Marr.
Tha'labah the son of 'Amr Muzaikiya demanded of Jurhum
that the plain of Makkah be given to his people. This re-
quest having been refused, a battle ensued in which Tha'labah
got control of the plain. Tha'labah and his people, how-
ever, realized after this that the place was unwholesome, and
found it hard to make their living in it ; so they dispersed,
one band of them leaving for 'Uman, another for as-Sarat,
another for al-Anbar and al-Hirah, another for Syria and 17
one band chose Makkah for abode. This made Jidh* say :
" Every time ye go to a place, ye al-Azd, some of you
1 Near Sudd-Ma'rib in al-Yamari; Hisham, p. 6.
AL-MAD1NAH 33
detach x themselves from the rest. Ye are on the point of
becoming the tail among the Arabs." That is why those
who settled in Makkah were called Khuza'ah.* Then came
Tha'labah ibn-'Amr Muzaikiya with his son and followers
to Yathrib whose people were Jews. They settled outside
the city where they grew and increased in number and be-
came so strong as to drive the Jews from Yathrib. Thus
they came to live inside the city and the Jews outside of it.
Al-Aus and al-Khasraj. Al-Aus and al-Khazraj are the
sons of Harithah ibn-Tha'labah 8 ibn-'Amr Muzaikiya ibn-
'Amir, and their mother was Kailah, daughter of al-Arkam.
Some say she was a Ghassanide of al-Azd tribe, others say
she was of 'Udhrah tribe.
In pre-Islamic times, the Aus and the Khazraj saw many
battles which made them trained in warfare. They became
so used to fighting that their valor spread far, their cour-
age became well known, their bravery was often cited and
their name became a source of terror in the hearts of the
Arabs, who feared them. Their possessions were well
guarded against encroachment, and their neighbor was well
protected; and all that was preparatory to the fact that
Allah wanted to have them support his Prophet and to honor
them by lending him aid.
It is reported that at the arrival of the Prophet in al-
Madinah he wrote an agreement and made a covenant with
the Jews of Yathrib.4 The Jews of Kainuka', however,
were the first to violate the covenant, and the Prophet ex-
pelled them from al-Madinah. The first land that the
Prophet conquered was that of the banu-an-Nadir.
lAr. inkhasa'a, see an-Nih&yah under khaza'a.
'Azralji, p. 55»
'Hisharn, p. 140; Geschichte der Stadt Medina, p. 56.
4 One of the names of Madinah.
CHAPTER II
The Possessions of the banu-an-Nadir
Banu-an-Nadir besieged. The Prophet once accompanied
by abu-Bakr, 'Umar and Usaid ibn-Hudair came to the banu-
an-Nadir who were Jews and solicited their aid for raising
the bloodwit of two men of the banu-Kilab ibn-Rabi'ah who
had made peace with him and who were killed by 'Amr ibn-
Umaiyah ad-Damn.1 The Jews intended to drop a stone on
him but the Prophet left them and sent them word ordering 18
them to evacuate his city [ Yathrib] because of their perfidy
and violation of covenant. The Jews refused to comply,
and announced hostility.2 Upon this the Prophet marched
and besieged them for fifteen days, at the close of which
they capitulated, agreeing to evacuate his town and to be
entitled to whatever the camels could carry with the ex-
ception of coats of mail and armor, the Prophet taking their
land, palm-trees, coats of mail and other arms. Thus did
all the possessions of the banu-an-Nadir become the property
of the Prophet. The Prophet used to sow their land planted
with palm-trees and thus provided for his family and wives
for one year. With what could not be consumed, he bought
horses and arms.
Fiefs assigned. Of the land of banu-an-Na<Jir, the Prophet
gave fiefs to abu-Bakr, 'Abd-ar-Rahman ibn-'Auf, abu-
'Hisharn, p. 652; Ibn-Satt, vol. ii», p. 40; Al-Wakidi, al-MapM**,
p. 353.
» Al-Ya'leubi, Ta'rtkh, vol. ii, p. 49.
34
THE POSSESSIONS OF THE BANV-AN-NAD1R 35
Dujanah 1 Simak ibn-Kharashah as-Sa'idi and others. This
occurred in the year 4 of the Hegira.
Mukhairik. According to al-Wakidi, one of the banu-an-
Nadir, Mukhairik, was a learned rabbi and he believed in the
Prophet and offered him all that he possessed, which was
seven palm-gardens surrounded with walls. This the Pro-
phet set apart as sadakah-fand. The seven gardens are:
al-Mithab, as-Safiyah, ad-Dalal, Husna,* Barkah, al-A'waf,
Mashrabat umm-Ibrahim,a Ibrahim being the son of the
Prophet and his mother being Mariyah, the Copt.
Other versions of the conquest. Al-Kasim ibn-Sallam
from az-Zuhri : — The attack on the banu-an-Na^ir, the Jews,
took place six months after the battle of Uhud. The Prophet
pressed the siege until they agreed to evacuate the city
stipulating that they take with them whatever utensils their
camels could carry with the exclusion of the coats of mail.
Hence the text revealed by Allah : "All that is in the heavens
and all that is on the earth praiseth Allah! And He is
the mighty, the wise ! He it is who caused the unbelievers
among the people of the Book ", etc,4 to " put the wicked
to shame/'
The next tradition was communicated to us by al-Husain
ibn-al-Aswad on the authority of Muhammad ibn-Ishak B
regarding the above text which Allah hath revealed to his
Messenger: — Those referred to are banu-an-Nadir. By
" Ye pressed not towards it with horse or camel. But Allah
giveth his Messengers authority over whomsoever He will-
eth ",e Allah showed that it is wholly assigned to the
1 Ya'kubi, vol. ii, p. 50.
1 "Al-# asna " in Geschuhte der Stadt Medina, p. 150.
* Wakidi, tr. Wellhausen, p. 166.
4 Koran, 59: 1.
5 Hisham, pp. 654 and 655.
•Baidawi, vol. ii, pp. 322-323.
36 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Prophet and to no one else. The Prophet then parcelled 19
out the land among the Emigrants. But when Sahl ibn-
Hunaif and abu-Dujanah mentioned their poverty, he gave
them a share. As for the text : " The spoil taken from the
people of the villages and assigned by Allah to his Mes-
senger, it belongeth to Allah and to the Messenger," etc,
to the end of the text, it means that Allah made another
division among the Moslems.
According to a tradition I received from Muhammad
ibn-Hatim as-Samin on the authority of ibn-'Umar, the
Prophet burnt and cut down the palm-trees of the banu-an-
Na^ir in reference to which Hassan ibn-Thabit says :
" The leading men of the banu-Lu'ai would have regarded it easy,
to bring about the great fire at Buwairah." x
According to ibn-Juraij, it was in this connection that
Allah revealed the text : " Whatever palm-trees ye have cut
down or left standing on their stems was by Allah's per-
mission and to put the wicked to shame."
A similar tradition was communicated to us by abu-'Ubaid
on the authority of ibn-'Umar.
Abu-'Amr ash-Shaibani, among other reporters, holds
that the above-quoted verse was composed by abu-Sufy&n
ibn-al-Harith ibn-'Abd-al-Muttalib and that its wording is
as follows:
44 The leading men of the banu-Lu'ai would have regarded it hard,
to bring about the great conflagration of Buwairah."
(According to other reports it is Buwailah [and not
Buwairah]).* Hassan ibn-Thabit in answer to that wrote
the following :
1 Al-Bakri, under Buwairah ; Ibn-Hishim, pp. 712-713.
1 Yakut, vol. i, p. 765.
THE POSSESSIONS OF THE BANU-AN-NAD1R
37
" May Allah perpetuate the conflagration
and make the fire rage in its parts.
They were given the Book but they lost it
Thus with respect to the Taurat they are blind and erring." x
The Prophet's special share. 'Amr ibn-Muhammad an-
Nakid from Malik ibn-Aus ibn-al-Hadathan : — It was stated
by 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab that the possessions of the banu-an-
Nadir were assigned by Allah to the Prophet, the Moslems
having not " pressed toward them with horse or camel." 20
Thus they were wholly his property. The Prophet used
to spend their annual income on his family and invest what
was left in horses and arms to be used in the cause of Allah.
Hisham ibn-'Ammar ad-Dimashki from Malik ibn-Aus
ibn-al-Hadathan: — 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab told him [Malik]
that the Prophet had three special shares which he appro-
priated for himself ; namely, the possessions of the banu-an-
Nadir, Khaibar and Fadak. The possessions of the banu-an-
Nadir he reserved for use in case of misfortunes that might
befall him. Those of Fadak were reserved for wayfarers.
Those of IChaibar he divided into three portions, two of
which he divided among the Moslems and the third he re-
served for his and his family's expenses, distributing what
was left after the expenses to the needy among the
Emigrants.
Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from az-Zuhri : — The possessions
of the banu-an-Nadir were among the things that Allah as-
signed to his Prophet. The Moslems " pressed not towards
them with horse or camel." They were therefore wholly the
property of the Prophet; and he divided them among the
Emigrants , giving nothing of them to the Ansar with the
exception of two persons who were needy, i. e., Simak ibn-
Kharashah abu-Dujanah, and Sahl ibn-Hunaif.
1 Cf. Qassan ibn-Thabit, Diwan, p. 46.
38 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Al-Husain from al-Kalbi : — When the Prophet secured the
possessions of thebanu-an-Na$r, who were the first he made
to evacuate the land, Allah said : " He it is who caused the
unbelievers among the * People of the Book ' to quit their
homes and join those who had evacuated previously." x
Thus these possessions were among the spoils towards which
the Moslems " pressed not with horse or camel." The
Prophet then said to the Ansdr : " Your brethren, the Emi-
grants have no possessions. If ye therefore desire, I will
divide these [newly acquired possessions] and what ye al-
ready possess among you and the Emigrants. But if ye
desire, keep ye your possessions and I will divide these
[newly acquired ones] among the Emigrants alone." To
this the Ansdr replied : " Divide these among them and give
them from our possessions whatever thou wishest." Be-
cause of this the text was revealed : " They prefer them be-
fore themselves, though poverty be their own lot." 2 There-
upon abu-Bakr said : " May Allah give you the good recom-
pense, ye Ansdr s your case and ours is like that referred
to by al-Ghanawi where he said,
' May Allah recompense in our behalf the Ja'f ar, 3 1
who when our feet slipped in al-Wafatain and we fell,
took ungrudging care of us
although our mothers would have murmured if they were in their
place.
The rich are many and every hungry man
goes to places kept warm and sheltered.' "
The fief of az~Zubair. Al-Husain from Hisham ibn-
'Urwah's father : — The Prophet assigned as fief to az-Zubair
ibn-'Auwam a piece of the banu-an-Nadir's land planted
with palm-trees.
Al-Husain from Hisham ibn-'Urwah's father : — The Pro-
1 Koran, 59 : 2. * Kor., 59 : 9-
THE POSSESSIONS OF THE BANU-AN-NADIR 39
phet gave out of the land of the banu-an-Nadir in fief and he
gave a fief to az-Zubair.
Muhammad ibn-Sa'd,1 the secretary of al-Wakidi, from
Anas ibn-'Iyad, and 'Abdallah ibn-Numair from Hisham
ibn-'Urwah's father: — The Prophet assigned as fief to az-
Zubair a piece of the banu-an-Nadir's land planted with palm-
trees. Abu-Bakr assigned to az-Zubair as fief al-Jurf.
Anas in his tradition says the land was dead. 'Abdallah
ibn-Numair says in his tradition that 'Umar gave az-Zubair
as fief all of al-'Akik.
• ■
1 Ibn-Sa'd, vol. ii2, p. 41.
1
CHAPTER III
The Possessions of the banu-Kuraizah
The subjection of the banu-Kuraizah. The Prophet be-
sieged banu-Kuraizah for a few days in dhu-1-Ka'dah, and a
few days in dhu-1-Hij jah, of the year 5, the whole time being
fifteen days.1 These banu-Kuraizah were among those who
had assisted in the fight against the Prophet in the battle
of al-Khandak [the moat] also called battle of al-Ahzab
[the confederates]. Finally they surrendered and he in-
stalled Sa'd ibn-Mu'adh al-Ausi as their ruler. The latter
decreed that every adult2 be executed, that women and
children be carried as captives and that all that they pos-
sessed be divided among the Moslems.* The Prophet ap-
proved of the decree saying : " What thou hast decreed is
in accordance with the decree of Allah and his Prophet."
Gabriel appears to the Prophet. 'Abd-al-Wahid ibn- .
Ghiyath from 'A'ishah : — When the Prophet was done with 22
the battle of al-Ahzab, he went into the wash-room in order
to wash. There Gabriel appeared to him and said, " Mu-
hammad, thou hast laid down thy arms; but we have not
yet. Hasten against the banu-Kuraizah." 'A'ishah upon this
said to the Prophet : " O Prophet of Allah, I have seen him
[Gabriel] through a hole in the door with the dust around
his head!"4
1 Dhu-1-Ka'dah 23— dhu-1-tfijjah 9; cf. Walpdi, tr. Wellhausen, p.
210; Tabari, vol. i, p. 1487.
'Literally "every one on whose beard the razor could be used."
• Wakidi, Magh&gi, p. 373-
4 Wakidi, Moghasi, p. 371 ; Ibn-Sa'd, vol. iU, p. 55 ; Ibn-Hisham, p. 684.
40
THE POSSESSIONS OF THE BANU-KURAIZAH 41
The adults executed. 'Abd-al-Wahid ibn-Ghiyath from
Kathir ibn-as-Sa'ib : — Banu-Kuraizah were presented to the
Prophet with the result that those of them who had at-
tained to puberty x were executed and those who had not
attained to puberty were spared.
Huyai ibn-Akhtab put to death with his son. Wahb ibn-
Bakiyah from al-Hasan : — Huyai ibn-Akhtab made a cove-
nant with the Prophet agreeing never to assist anyone against
him and mentioned Allah as surety for the covenant. When
he and his son were brought before the Prophet on the day
of Kuraizah, the Prophet remarked : " The one mentioned
as surety has done his part." By the order of the Prophet
the heads of the man and his son were cut off.8
The division of the booty. Bakr ibn-al-Haitham from
Ma'mar who said : — I once asked az-Zuhri whether the banu-
Kuraizah had any lands, to which he replied directly, " The
Prophet divided it among the Moslems into different
shares."
Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from ibn-' Abbas : — The Prophet
divided the possessions of the banu-Kuraizah and Khaibar
among the Moslems.*
The conquest according to az-Zuhri. Abu-'Ubaid al-
Kasim ibn-Sallam from az-Zuhri : — The Prophet pressed the
siege against banu-Kuraizah until they surrendered to Sa'd
ibn-Mu'adh who decreed that their men be executed, their
children be taken as captives and their possessions be
divided. Accordingly, a certain number of men were put
to death on that day.
1 Literally every one who "had the dreams and hair" that mark
adolescence.
'Tabari, vol. i, p. 1494.
• WaJridi, Wcllhausen, pp. 220-221.
CHAPTER IV
Khaibar 23
The capitulation of Khaibar. The Prophet invaded
Khaibar l in the year 7. Its people contended with him,
delayed him and resisted the Moslems. So the Prophet be-
sieged them for about one month.2 They then capitulated
on the terms that their blood would not be shed, and their
children be spared, provided that they evacuate the land,
which he permitted the Moslems to take together with the
gold and silver and arms— except what was on the person of
the banu-Khaibar, and that they keep nothing secret from the
Prophet. They then told the Prophet, " We have special
experience in cultivation and planting palm-trees," and asked
to be allowed to remain in the land. The Prophet granted
them their request and allowed them one-half of the fruits
and grains produced saying : " I shall keep you settled so
long as Allah keeps you."
'Umar expels the people of Khaibar. During the cali-
phate of 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab, a pestilence spread among
them and they mistreated the Moslems. 'Umar, thereupon,
made them evacuate the land, dividing what they had among
those of the Moslems who already had a share in it.
The terms made. Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from Muham-
mad ibn-Ishak who said : — " I once asked ibn-Shihab about
Khaibar and he told me that he was informed that the
1 Yakut, vol. ii, p. 503.
2 Diyarbakri, Ta'rikh al-Khamis, vol. ii, p. 47.
42
KHAIBAR
43
Prophet captured it by force after a fight, and that it was
included among the spoils which Allah assigned to his
Prophet. The Prophet took its fifth and divided the land
among the Moslems. Those of its people who surrendered
did * so on condition that they leave the land ; but the Pro-
phet asked them to enter into a treaty, which they did."
Huyai hides a bag full of money. 'Abd-al-A'la ibn-
Hammad an-Narsi from ibn-'Umar : — The Prophet came to
the people of Khaibar and fought them until he drove them
to their castle and captured their land and palm-trees. They
then capitulated on the terms that their blood be not shed,
that they evacuate the land and be entitled to all that their
camels could carry, and that the Prophet be entitled to the
gold and silver and arms.2 The Prophet made it a condi-
tion for them that they hold nothing secret or hidden from
him, otherwise they are no more within his protection or
covenant. They, however, hid a leather bag in which were
kept money and jewels belonging to Huyai ibn-Akhtab.
This bag Huyai had brought to Khaibar on the occasion 24
of the expulsion of the banu-an- Nadir. The Prophet asked
Sa'yah ibn-'Amr saying, "What has become of the bag which
Huyai brought from the banu-an-Nadir ?" To this Sa'yah
answered, " Wars and expenses have emptied it." But the
Prophet remarked, " It was a short time and a big sum of
money. Moreover, Huyai was killed before that" The
Prophet then turned Sa'yah over to az-Zubair and the latter
put him to the torture. At last Sa'yah said : " I saw Huyai
roaming about in a deserted place yonder." Search was
made in the deserted place and the bag was found. The
Prophet, thereupon, put the two sons of abu-1-Hukaik to
death, one of whom was the husband of Saf iyah,* the daugh-
1 Hisham, p. 779- * Ibn-Sa'd, vol. ii*, pp. 79*.
•who became one of the wives of Muhammad, see an-Nawawi,
Tahdhtb ol- A stria*, pp. 846-847.
44
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
ter of Huyai ibn-Akhtab. Moreover, he captivated their
children and women and divided their possessions because
of their breach of faith.
'Abdalldh ibn-Rawahah estimates the produce. The Pro-
phet also wanted to expel the banu-Khaibar from the land but
they said, " Let us stay in the land to repair it and manage
it." The Prophet and his companions having no slaves to
manage it, and they having no time to do it themselves, he
gave them Khaibar on condition that they have one-half of
every palm-tree or plant ... x as it occurred to the Prophet.
'Abdallah ibn-Rawahah used to come every year and esti-
mate by conjecture the quantity of dates upon the palm-trees
and rent them one-half. Banu-Khaibar accused him to the
Prophet charging him with partiality in estimation and of-
fered to bribe him. To this he ['Abdallah] replied saying,
"Do ye enemies of Allah mean to give me unlawful money ? 2
By Allah, I have been sent to you by one whom of all men I
love best. As for you, I hate you more than monkeys and
pigs. My hatred to you and love to him, however, shall
never stand in the way of my being just to you." They
then said, " Through this [justice] have heavens and earth
been established !"
The green spot in the eye of Safiyah, the Prophet's wife.
Once the Prophet, noticing a green spot in the eye of
Safiyah, daughter of Huyai, asked her about it, and she said,
"As my head lay in the lap of ibn-abi-1-Hukaik, I saw in
my sleep as if a moon fell in my lap. When I told him of
what I saw he gave me a blow saying, 'Art thou wishing to
have the king of Yathrib ?' " * Safiyah added, " Of all men
the Prophet was the one I disliked most, for he had killed
1 Text not clear.
1 Kor., 5 : 67 and 68.
'Tabari, vol. i, p. 1582.
KHAIBAR
45
my husband, father and brother. But he kept on saying,
' Thy father excited the Arabs to unite against me and he
did this and that/ until all hatred was gone away from me."
The Prophet used to give annually each of his wives 80 25
camel-loads of dates and 80 loads of barley from Khaibar.
'Umar divides Khaibar. It was stated by Nafi' that dur-
ing the caliphate of 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab, the people of
Khaibar mistreated the Moslems and deceived them and
broke the hands of the son of 'Umar * by hurling him from
the roof of a house. Consequently, 'Umar divided the
land among those of the people of Hudaibiyah who had
taken part in the battle of Khaibar.
The forts of Khaibar. Al-IIusain ibn-al-Aswad from
'Abdallah ibn-abi-Bakr ibn-Muhammad ibn-'Amr ibn-
Hazm: — The Prophet besieged the people of Khaibar in
their two fortresses — al-Watih and Sulalim. When they felt
that their destruction was sure, they requested the Prophet
to let them off and spare their lives. This he did. The
Prophet had already taken possession of all their property *
including ash-Shikk, an-Natat and al-Katibah together with
all their forts except what was in the above-mentioned two.
"Speedy victory" The following tradition regarding
the text : 8 "And rewarded them with a speedy victory " was
transmitted by al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad on the authority of
'Abd-ar-Rahman ibn-abi-Laila : — Khaibar and another are
meant who could not be subdued by the Persians and Greeks.
The division of Khaibar. 'Amr an-Nakid from Bushair
ibn-Yasar: — The Prophet divided Khaibar into thirty-six
shares and each share into a hundred lots. One-half of
the shares he reserved for himself to be used in case of
. 'Hisham, p. 780.
* Six fortresses mentioned by Ya'kubi, vol. ii, p. 56.
•Kor., 48:18.
46 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
accident or what might befall him, and the other half he
distributed among the Moslems. According to this, the
Prophet's share included ash-Shikk with an-Natat and
whatever was included within them. Among the lands
turned into wakf1 were al-Katibah and Sulalim. When
the Prophet laid his hands on these possessions, he found
that he had not enough 'amils a for the land. He therefore
turned it over to the Jews on condition that they use the
land and keep only one-half of its produce. This arrange-
ment lasted throughout the life of the Prophet and abu-Bakr.
But when 'Umar was made caliph, and as the money be-
came abundant in the lands of the Moslems, and the
Moslems became numerous enough to cultivate the land,
'Umar expelled the Jews to Syria and divided the property 26
among the Moslems.
Bakr ibn-al-Haitham from az-Zuhri : — When the Prophet
conquered Khaibar the fifth share of it [reserved for him-
self] was al-Katibah; as for ash-Shikk, an-Natat, Sulalim
and al-Watih they were given to the Moslems. The Pro-
phet left the land in the hands of the Jews on condition that
they give him one-half of the produce. Thus the part of the *
produce assigned by Allah to the Moslems was divided
among the Moslems until the time of 'Umar who divided
the land itself among them according to their shares.
Abu-'Ubaid from Maimun ibn-Mihran : — The Prophet be-
sieged the inhabitants of Khaibar between twenty and thirty
days.
Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from Bushair ibn-Yasar: — The
Prophet divided Khaibar into thirty-six shares — eighteen
for the Prophet to meet the expenses of accidents, visitors,
1 Unalienable legacy to the Moslem general community.
2 Governors whose chief function it was to collect taxes and conquer
more lands.
KHAIBAR
47
and delegates, and the remaining eighteen shares to be
divided each among one hundred men.1
Al-Husain from Bushair ibn-Yasar : — Khaibar was divided
into thirty-six shares, each one of which was subdivided
into one hundred lots. Eighteen of these shares were
divided among the Moslems including the Prophet, who had
in addition eighteen shares to meet the expenses of visitors
and delegates and accidents that might befall him.
'Abdall&h ibn-Rawahah estimates the produce. 'Amr
an-Nakid and al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from ibn-'Umar: —
The Prophet sent ibn-Rawahah to Khaibar who made a
conjectural estimation of the palm-trees and gave the people
their choice to accept or refuse, to which they replied : " This
is justice; and upon justice have heaven and earth been
established."
The sons of abu-l-Hukaik put to death. Ishak ibn-abi-
Isra'il from an inhabitant of al-Madinah: — The Prophet 27
made terms with the sons of abu-l-Hukaik stipulating that
they conceal no treasure. But they did conceal; and the
Prophet considered it lawful to shed their blood.
Abu-IJbaid from Maimun ibn-Mihran: — The people of
Khaibar were promised security on their lives and children
on condition that the Prophet get all that was in the fort.
In that fort were the members of a family strongly opposed
to the Prophet. To them the Prophet said : " I am aware
of your enmity to Allah and to his Prophet, but this is not
to hold me from granting you what I granted your com-
panions. Ye, however, have promised me that if ye conceal
a thing your blood will become lawful to me. What has be-
come of your utensils ?" " They were all " — they replied,
" used up during the fight." The Prophet then gave word to
lC/. Wafcidi, tr. Wcllhausen, p. 285; Tabari, vol. i, p. 1588; Athir,
vol. ii, p. 171.
48 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
his Companions to go to the place where the utensils were.
The vessels were disinterred and the Prophet struck off
their heads.
'Abdalldh ibn-Rawahah. 'Amr an-N&kid and Muham-
mad ibn-as-Sabb&h from ibn-' Abbas : — The Prophet turned
Khaibar over with its soil and palm-trees to its inhabitants
allowing them half of the produce.
Muhammad ibn-as-Sabbah from ash-Sha'bi: — The Pro-
phet turned Khaibar over to its inhabitants for one-half
of the produce and sent 'Abdallah ibn-Rawahah to estimate
the dates (or perhaps he said the palm-trees). This he
estimated and divided into two halves and asked them to
choose whichever one they wanted. Upon this they said,
" It is by this that heavens and earth have been established."
A certain friend of abu-Yusuf from Anas: — 'Abdallah
ibn-Rawahah said to the people of Khaibar, " If ye wish,
I will estimate and let you choose; otherwise, ye estimate
and let me choose." Upon this they said, " It is by this that
heavens and earth have been established."
The division of Khaibar. Al-Kasim ibn-Sallam from
az-Zuhri : — The Prophet took Khaibar by force as a result
of a fight ; and after taking away one-fifth, he divided the
remaining four-fifths among the Moslems.
The Jews of Khaibar expelled. 'Abd-al-A'la ibn- 2g
Hammad an-Narsi from ibn-Shihab: — The Prophet said:
" There can be no two religions at the same time in the
Arabian peninsula." x 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab investigated
until he found it certain and assured that the Prophet had
said, " There can be no two religions at the same time in
the Arabian peninsula." Accordingly, he expelled the Jews
of Khaibar.
1 Gottheii, " Dkimmis and Moslems in Egypt," in O. T. and Semitic
Studies, vol. ii, p. 351.
KHAIBAR 49
The Prophet gives his share. Al-Walid ibn-Salih from
al-Wakidi's sheikhs: — The Prophet assigned his share in
Khaibar as a means of subsistence, bestowing on each one
of his wives 80 camel-loads of dates and 20 loads of
barley; on his uncle al-' Abbas ibn-'Abd-al-Muttalib 200
loads; and on abu-Bakr, 'Umar, al-Hassan, al-Husain and
others including the banu-al-Muttalib ibn-'Abd-Manaf a
certain number of loads. To this end, he drew up for them
a document
Al-Walid from Aflah ibn-Humaid's father who said : — " I
was made by 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz governor of al-
Karibah ; and we used to give the heirs of the recipients of
the Prophet's bestowals their due, those heirs being num-
bered and recorded by us.
'Umar divides Khaibar. Muhammad ibn-H&tim as-
Samin from Nafi* : — The Prophet turned Khaibar over to the
hands of its people on condition that they give him one-half
of the produce. Thus they held it during the life of the
Prophet, abu-Bakr and the early part of the caliphate of
'Umar. Then 'Abdallah ibn-'Umar visited them for some
purpose and they attacked him in the night. He ['Umar],
therefore, turned them out of Khaibar and divided it among
those of the Moslems who were present [in its battle] giv-
ing a share to the Prophet's wives. To the latter he said,
" Whichever of you likes to have the fruit can have it, and
whichever likes the estate can have it, and whatever ye
choose will be yours and your heirs' after you."
Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from ibn-' Abbas : — Khaibar was
divided into 1580 shares. The Moslems were 1580 men,
of whom 1540 had taken part in the battle of al-Hudaibiyah
and forty were with Ja'far ibn-abi-Talib in Abyssinia.
The fief of as-Zubair. Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from
ibn-'Urwah's father : — The Prophet gave as fief to az-Zubair 29
lands in Khaibar planted with palm- and other trees.
CHAPTER V
Fadak
The capitulation of Fadak. As the Prophet departed
from Khaibar, he sent to the people of Fadak * Muhaiyisah
ibn-Mas'ud al-Ansari inviting them to Islam. Their chief
was one of their number named Yusha' ibn-Nun the Jew.
They made terms with the Prophet, agreeing to give up one-
half of the land with its soil.* The Prophet accepted.
Thus one-half was assigned wholly to the Prophet because
the Moslems " pressed not against it with horse or camel." *
The Prophet used to spend the income on the wayfarers.
'Umar expels the inhabitants. The inhabitants of Fadak
remained in it until 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab became caliph and
expelled the Jews of al-Hijaz. On that occasion he sent
abu-1-Haitham Malik ibn-at-Taiyihan (some say an-
Naiyihan), Sahl ibn-abi-Haithamah al-Ansari, and Zaid ibn-
Thabit al-Ansari, who estimated justly the value of one-
half of its soil. This value 'Umar paid to the Jews and
expelled them to Syria.
Sa'id ibn-Sulaiman from Yahya ibn-Sa'id : — The people
of Fadak made terms with the Prophet agreeing to give
one-half of the land and the palm-trees. When 'Umar ex-
pelled them, he sent some one to estimate their share in land
and palm-trees and he gave them their value.
1 Yafcut, vol. iii, pp. 856*57.
'Not only the produce.
* Athir, vol. ii, p. 171 ; Mas'udi, Kitdb ot-Tonbih, p. 258.
50
FADAK 5 1
Bakr ibn-al-Haitham from az-Zuhri: — 'Ulnar ibn-al-
Khattab gave the people of Fadak the price of one-half of
their land and palm-trees.
Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from az-Zuhri, 'Abdall&h ibn-
abi-Bakr and certain sons of Muhammad ibn-Maslamah : —
Only a remnant of the Khaibar was spared. They betook
themselves to the fortifications and asked the Prophet to
save their lives and let them go off. The people of Fadak
having heard of that surrendered on the same conditions.1
Thus Fadak became the special share of the Prophet, for the 30
Moslems " pressed not against it with horse and camel."
A similar tradition was transmitted to us by al-Husain
from 'Abdallah ibn-abi-Bakr, with one addition, that among
those who were intermediary between the two parties was
Muhaiyisah ibn-Mas'ud.
Al-ljusain from 'Umar : — The Prophet had three portions
appropriated to himself exclusive of his men: the* land of
banu-an- Nadir which was unalienable and to meet the ex-
penses of the accidents that might befall him, Khaibar which
he divided into three parts, and Fadak the income of which
was reserved for wayfarers.
The wives of the Prophet demand an inheritance. 'Abdal-
lah ibn-Salih al-'Ijli from 'Urwah ibn-az-Zubair : — The
wives of the Prophet delegated TJthman ibn-'Affan to ask
abu-Bakr to give them their inheritance from the share of
the Prophet in Khaibar and Fadak. But 'A'ishah said to
them, " Do ye not fear Allah ? and have ye not heard the
Prophet say — ' What we leave as sadakah cannot be in-
herited ?' This property therefore is the property of the
people of Muhammad to meet the expenses of the accidents
and guests, and when I die it goes to the one in authority
after me." On hearing this, the other wives desisted from
their request.
1 Diyarbakri, vol. ii, pp. 57 and 64.
52 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
A similar tradition was communicated to us by Ahmad
ibn-Ibrahim ad-Dauraki on the authority of 'Urwah.
The banthUfnaiyah confiscate Fadak. Ibrahim ibn-
Muhammad ibn-'Ar'arah from al-Kalbi: — The banu-
Umaiyah confiscated Fadak and violated the law of the
Prophet in regard to it. But when 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz
became caliph, he reinstated the land in its old condition.
Fatimah demands Fadak. 'Abdallah ibn-Maimun al-
Mukattib from Malik ibn-Ja'wanah's father : — Fatimah said
to abu-Bakr, "The Prophet assigned to me Fadak; thou
shouldst therefore give it to me." x 'Ali ibn-Abi-Talib
acted as a witness in her favor. But abu-Bakr asked for
another witness; and umm-Aiman testified in her favor.
Abu-Bakr, thereupon, said " Thou, daughter of Allah's Pro- 3 l
phet, knowest that no evidence can be accepted unless it is
rendered by two men or a man and two women." Upon
this she departed.
Rauh al-Karabisi from one supposed by Rauh to have
been Ja'far ibn-Muhammad : — Fatimah said to abu-Bakr,
" Give me Fadak, the Prophet has assigned it to me." Abu-
Bakr called for evidence and she presented umm-Aiman
and Rabah, the Prophet's f reedman, both of whom testified
in her favor. But abu-Bakr said, " In such a case no evi-
dence could be accepted unless it be rendered by a man and
two women."
Ibn-'A'ishah at-Taimi from umm-Hani: — Fatimah, the
Prophet's daughter, called on abu-Bakr and asked : " Who
will inherit thee when thou art dead ?" to which he replied,
" My son and family." " Why then," asked she, " hast thou
— and not we — inherited the Prophet's possessions?"
" Daughter of Allah's Prophet," answered abu-Bakr, " by
Allah, I have inherited from thy father neither gold nor
1 Bukhari, vol. iii, p. 131.
FADAK 53
silver, neither this nor that" " But," said she, " thou hast
inherited our share in Khaibar and our sadakah in Fadak."
To this abu-Bakr replied, " Daughter of Allah's Prophet, I
heard Allah's Prophet say, ' This is but something assigned
by Allah as a means of subsistence to use during my life;
on my death it should be turned over to the Moslems/ "
TJthman ibn-abi-Shaibah from Mughirah: — 'Umar ibn-
'Abd-al-'Aziz once summoned the banu-Umaiyah and ad-
dressed them saying : " Fadak belonged to the Prophet and
by the income from it he met his own expenses, supplied the
needy among the banu-Hashim and helped the unmarried
among them to marry. Fatimah asked him to bestow it on
her, but he refused. After the Prophet's death, abu-Bakr
used it in the same way. And so did 'Umar when he be-
came caliph. And now I am going to put it back to its
original use; and ye will be my witnesses."
Kara 'Arabiyah. The following tradition was trans-
mitted to us by Suraij ibn-Yunus from az-Zuhri in explana-
tion of the text, "Against which ye pressed not with horse
or camel " : * — The places referred to are Kura 'Arabiyah *
that belong to the Prophet, i. e., Fadak, and this and that.
'Umar expels the Jews of Fadak. Abu-'Ubaid from az- 32
Zuhri or someone else : — 'Umar expelled the Jews of Khaibar
and they evacuated the place. As for the Jews of Fadak,
they retained half the fruits [produced] and half the soil,
in accordance with the conditions on which they made terms
with the Prophet. 'Umar paid them the price of half the
products and half the soil in gold, silver and pack-saddles,
and then expelled them.
The khutbah of 'Umar ibn-' Abd-al- Adz. 'Amr an-
Nakid from abu-Burkan : — The following is taken from the
1 Kor., 59 : 6.
»Bakri, pp. 657-658; Wafcidi, Maghdsi, p. 374.
54 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
speech of 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz on his installment in
the caliphate : " Fadak was among the spoils that Allah
assigned the Prophet and the * Moslems pressed not against
it with horse and camel.' When Fatimah asked him to give
her the land, he said, ' Thou hast nothing to demand from
me, and I have nothing to give thee.' The Prophet used
to spend the income from it on wayfarers. Then came abu-
Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthm&n and 'Ali who put it to the same use
as the Prophet. But when Mu'awiyah became caliph he
gave it as fief to Marwan ibn-al-Hakam ; and the latter
bestowed it on my father and on 'Abd-al-Malik. Thus it
was handed down to al-Walid, Sulaiman and myself. When
al-Walid became caliph, I asked him to give me his share,
which he did. In like manner, I asked Sulaiman for his share
and he gave it. Thus I brought it into one whole again.
And nothing that I possess is dearer to me than it ! Be ye
therefore my witnesses, that I have restored it to what
it was."
Al-Ma'mun gives Fadak to the descendants of Fatimah.
In the year 210, the commander of the believers al-Ma'mun
'Abdallah ibn-Harun ar-Rashid ordered that Fadak be de-
livered to the children of Fatimah. To that effect he wrote
to his 'dmil in al-Madinah, Kutham ibn-Ja'far, saying,
"Greetings! — The commander of the believers, in his
position in the religion of Allah and as caliph [successor]
of his Prophet and a near relative to him, has the first right
to enforce the Prophet's regulations and carry out his or-
ders and deliver to him, whom the Prophet granted some-
thing or gave it as sadakah, the thing granted or given as
such. In Allah alone does the success as well as the strength
of the commander of the believers lie, and to do what makes
him win His favor is his [the commander's] chief desire.
The Prophet had given Fatimah, his daughter, Fadak and
bestowed it as sadakah on her. That was an evident and
FADAK
55
well-known fact on which there was no disagreement among 33
the relatives of the Prophet, who do not cease to lay claim
on what was given to Fatimah as sadakah and to which she
is entitled. Consequently, the commander of the believers
has deemed it right to return it to the heirs of Fatimah and
deliver it to them, seeking thereby to win the favor of Allah
by establishing his right and justice, and of Allah's Prophet
by carrying out his command and his wish regarding his
sadakah. This the commander of the believers ordered re-
corded in his registers and sent in writing to his 'amils.
And since, after the death of the Prophet, it has been cus-
tomary on every mausim x to have any person claim a grant,
or sadakah or promise,3 and to have his claim accepted, then
Fatimah's claim on what the Prophet has bestowed on her
should — above that of every one else — be accepted as true.
The commander of the believers has written to al-
Mubarik at-Tabari, his freedman, ordering him to give
Fadak back to the heirs of Fatimah, the Prophet's daugh-
ter, with all its boundaries and the rights attached to it, and
including its slaves and products and other things, all to be
delivered to Muhammad ibn-Yahya ibn-al-Husain ibn-Zaid
ibn-'Ali ibn-al-Husain ibn-'Ali ibn-abi-Talib and to Muham-
• • •
mad ibn-'Abdallah ibn-al-Hasan ibn-'Ali ibn-al-Husain ibn-
'Ali ibn-abi-Talib, both of whom the commander of the
believers has put in charge of the land in behalf of its
owners.
Know therefore that this is the opinion of the commander
of the believers and what Allah has inspired him to do as
His will, and what He has enabled him to do in the way of
winning His favor and His Prophet's favor. Let those
under thee know it; and treat Muhammad ibn-Yahya
1 Meeting time of the pilgrims, see an-Nih&yah, vol. iv, p. 211, and
Mutarrizi, al-Mughrib, vol. ii, p. 250.
2 At. 'idat, see Bukhari, vol. ii, p. 285 ; vol. iii, p. 168.
56 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
and Muhammad ibn-'Abdall&h as thou hast treated al-
Mubarik at-Tabari; and help them in any way that makes
for the fertility, interest and productivity of the land. May
it be Allah's will, and peace be unto thee.
Written on Wednesday, two days after the beginning of
dhu-1-Ka'dah, year 210."
Al-Mutawakkil restores Fadak to its old condition. When
al-Mutawakkil, however, became caliph, he ordered that
the land be reinstated in the condition in which it had been
before al-Ma'mun.
CHAPTER VI
Wadi-l-Kura and Taima'
Wadi-l-Kura taken by assault. When the Prophet de-
parted from Khaibar, he came to Wadi-l-Kura x and invited
its people to Islam. They refused and started hostilities. 34
The Prophet reduced the place by force; and Allah gave
him as booty the possessions of its inhabitants. To the lot
of the Moslems fell pieces of furniture and other commodi-
ties of which the Prophet took away one-fifth. The Pro-
phet left the land with its palm-trees in the hands of certain
Jews on the same rent terms which he had made with the
people of Khaibar.* Some say that 'Umar expelled its
Jews and divided it among those who fought for its con-
quest. Others, however, say that 'Umar did not expel them,
for it is not included in al-Hijaz. Today it is annexed to
the administrative district of al-Madinah and is included
among its suburbs.
Mid" am condemned to lire. I was informed by certain
scholars that the Prophet had a slave, named Mid'am, whom
Rifa'ah ibn-Zaid al-Judhami had presented to him. Dur-
ing the invasion of Wadi-l-Kura, Mid'am was shot by an
arrow from an unknown quarter as he was putting down
the saddle of the Prophet's camel. When someone re-
marked, " Blessed, O prophet of Allah, is thy slave, for he
was shot by an arrow and suffered martyrdom," the Pro-
1 Yafcut, vol. iv, p. 678.
■ Wakidi, tr. Wellhausen, p. 292.
57
58
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
phet replied, " Nay, the mantle he took from the spoils on
the day of Khaibar shall verily burn on him like fire." l
Shaiban ibn-Farrukh from al-Hasan : — Someone remarked
to the Prophet, " Thy lad, so and so, has suffered martyr-
dom," to which the Prophet replied, " Rather he is dragged
to fire in a mantle he unlawfully took from the spoils."
'Abd-al- Wahid ibn-Ghiyath from al-Hasan: — Some one
remarked to the Prophet, " Happy art thou, for thy lad, so
and so, has suffered martyrdom!" to which he replied,
" Rather he is dragged to fire in a mantle he unlawfully
took from the spoils." a
Taimct capitulates. When the people of Taima' heard
how the Prophet had subjugated the people of Wadi-1-
Kura, they made terms with him, agreeing to pay poll-tax,
and they settled in their homes with their lands in their
possession.* The Prophet assigned 'Amr ibn-Sa'id ibn-
al-'Asi ibn-Umaiyah as governor to Wadi-1-Kura, and as-
signed Yazid ibn-abi-Sufyan after its conquest, the latter
having become Moslem on the day of the conquest of
Taima'.
'Umar expels the inhabitants. 'Abd-al-A'la ibn-Ham-
mad an-Narsi from 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz : — 'Umar ibn-
al-Khattab expelled the people of Fadak, Taima' and 35
Khaibar. The fight between the Prophet and the people
of Wadi-1-Kura took place in Jumada II, year 7.
The fief of Hamzah ibn-an-Nufman. A1-* Abbas ibn-
Hisham al-Kalbi from his grandfather : — The Prophet gave
as fief to Hamzah ibn-an-Nu'man ibn-Haudhah-l-'Udhri
his whip's throw * in Wadi-1-Kura. This Hamzah was the
1 Hisham, p. 765.
'Bukhari, vol. iii, pp. 129-150.
• Diyarbakri, vol. ii, p. 65.
* Mawardi, p. 330.
WADI-L-KURA AND TAIMA? 59
chief of the banu-'Udhrah and the first of the people of al-
Hijaz to offer the Prophet the sadakah of banu-'Udhrah.
The fief of fAbd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan. 'Ali ibn-Muham-
mad from al-' Abbas ibn-' Amir's uncle : — 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-
Marwan called on Yazid ibn-Mu'awiyah and said, "O com-
mander of the believers, Mu'awiyah in his caliphate bought
from certain Jews a piece of land in Wadi-1-Kura and made
many improvements in it. Thou hast let that land fall
into negligence. It is therefore lost, and its income has de-
creased. Give it therefore as fief to me, and I shall take care
of it." To this Yazid replied : " We are not stingy in big
things, nor can a trifling escape our eye." 'Abd-al-Malik
then said, " Its income is so much ..." " Thou canst
have it/* said Yazid.1 When 'Abd-al-Malik departed Yazid
remarked, " It is said that this is the man that will rule
after us. If that is right, we would have done him favor
and expect to receive something in repay; if it is false, we
have granted him a gift."
1 L. Caetani, Annali dell Isl&tn, vol. ii, p. 50, note 7.
CHAPTER VII
Makkah
The cause of its invasion. When the Prophet made ar-
rangements with the Kuraish in the year of al-Hudaibiyah
and wrote down the statement of the truce x to the effect that
he who desires to make a covenant with Muhammad can do
so, and he who desires to make a covenant with Kuraish
can do so; and that he of the Companions of the Prophet
who comes to Kuraish should not be returned, and he of
the banu-Kuraish or their allies who comes to the Prophet
should be returned, then those of Kinanah who were present
rose and said, " We will enter into a covenant with Kuraish,
and accept their terms " ; but Khuza'ah said, " We will enter
into the covenant of Muhammad and his contract." Since
between 'Abd-al-Muttalib and Khuza'ah an old alliance
existed, 'Amr ibn-Salim ibn-Hasirah-1-Khuza'i composed
the following verse :
" O Allah I I am seeking from Muhammad <*fi
die hereditary alliance of our father and his." J
One of the clan of Khuza'ah hearing one of the clan of
Kinanah sing a poem satirizing the Prophet, attacked him
and crushed his head. This incident provoked evil and
fighting between the two parties. Kuraish reinforced banu-
Kinanah and together they attacked Khuza'ah in the night
time, thus violating the covenant and the arrangement.
1 Wakidi, M aghast, p. 387 ; Hisfaam, pp. 74&-747, 803.
1 Hisham, p. 806; Wakidi, Moghasi, p. 402; Falrihi, p. 42.
60
MAKKAH 6l
Thereupon, 'Amr ibn-Salim ibn-Hasirah-1-Khuza'i came
to the Prophet and solicited his aid. This led the Prophet
to invade Makkah.
The following is taken from a long tradition communi-
cated to us by abu-'Ubaid al-Kasim ibn-Sallam on the au-
thority of 'Urwah: — Kuraish made terms with the Pro-
phet, stipulating that both parties promise each other secur-
ity against treachery and stealth,1 so that a man coming on
pilgrimage to Makkah or to visit there, or passing on his
way between al-Yaman and at-Ta'if is safe ; and he of the
" polytheists " who passes through al-Madinah on his way
to Syria and the East is safe. In this covenant the Prophet
included banu-Ka'b ; and Kuraish included in their covenant
their allies of the banu-Kinanah.
Abu-Sufyan as an envoy. 'Abd-al- Wahid ibn-Ghiyath
from 'Ikrimah : — The banu-Bakr of Kinanah were included
in the peace terms of Kuraish, and the Khuza'ah were in-
cluded in the peace terms of the Prophet. But a fight took 37
place between the banu-Bakr and Khuza'ah at 'Arafah.2
Kuraish provided banu-Bakr with arms, and gave them
water to drink, and shelter. Some of the Kuraish objected
saying, " Ye have violated the covenant," yet the others
replied, " We have not. By Allah, we did not fight. We
only gave them provision, water, and shelter."
They, thereupon, said to abu-Sufyan ibn-Harb, " Go and
renew the alliance and reconcile the parties " Abu-Sufyan
proceeded to al-Madinah where he met abu-Bakr and said
to him, "Abu-Bakr, renew the alliance and reconcile the
parties."
Abu-Bakr asked him to see 'Umar. Accordingly he met
'Umar and said, " Renew the alliance and reconcile the
1Hisham, p. 747; Caetani, vol. ii, p. 106; Wakidi, tr. Wellhausen, p.
257. note 1 ; and Fa'ifr, vol. ii, p. 114.
1 Hisharn, p. 803 ; Fakihi, pp. 49 and 144-145 ; Yakut, vol. iii, p. 646.
62 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
parties," to which 'Umar replied, " May Allah cut off the
alliance what is still connected and wear out what is still
new." Abu-Sufyan then said, " By Allah I never saw a
worse head of a tribe than thou!" Thence he went to
Fatimah who asked him to meet 'Ali. This he did and
made the same request. 'Ali replied, " Thou art the sheikh
of Kuraish and its chief. Renew therefore the alliance and
reconcile the parties." Abu-Sufyan then clapped his right
hand against the left saying, " I have renewed the alliance
and reconciled the parties."
He then left and came to Makkah. The Prophet had
said, "Abu-Sufyan is coming. He returns satisfied without
having effected any result." When he returned to the people
of Makkah he told them what had happened and they said,
" By Allah we know none more foolish than thou. Thou
dost bring us neither war that we may be warned, nor peace
that we may feel safe."
Khuza'ah then came to the Prophet and complained of
what had befallen them. The Prophet said, " I was ordered
to secure one of the two towns Makkah or at-Ta'if."
Thereupon, the Prophet ordered that the march be com-
menced. Thus he set out with the Companions saying, " O
Allah, strike upon their ears [with deafness] that they may
not hear,1 so that we may take them by surprise!" The
Prophet pressed the march until he camped at Marr az-
Zahran. Kuraish had asked abu-Suf yan to return. When
he [abu-Sufyan] got to Marr az-Zahran and saw the fires
and the tents he said, " What is the matter with the people ?
They seem like the people celebrating the night of 'Araf ah."
Saying this, he was surrounded by the Prophet's horsemen,
who took him prisoner ; and he was brought before the Pro-
phet. 'Umar came and wanted to execute him, but al-
!<:/. Kor., 18:10.
MAKKAH
63
'Abbas prevented him and he [abu-Sufyan] embraced Islam
and presented himself before the Prophet. When the time
for morning prayer came, the Moslems bestirred themselves
for ablution before prayer. " What is the matter ?" said
abu-Sufyan to al-'Abbas ibn-'Abd-al-Muttalib, " Do they 38
mean to kill me?" " No," answered al-' Abbas, " they have
risen for prayer." As they began to pray, abu-Sufyan
noticed that when the Prophet knelt they knelt; when he
prostrated himself, they prostrated themselves ; upon which
he remarked, " By Allah I never saw, as I did to-day, the
submissiveness of a people coming from here and there —
not even in the case of the noble Persians, or the Greeks
who have long fore-locks." x
AW Abbas asked the Prophet saying, " Send me to the
people of Makkah that I may invite them to Islam." No
sooner had the Prophet sent him than he called him back
saying, " Bring my uncle back to me, that the * polytheists '
may not kill him." Al-' Abbas, however, refused to return
until he came to Makkah and made the following statement :
" O ye people, embrace Islam and ye shall be safe. Ye
have been surrounded on all sides. Ye are confronted by
a hard case that is beyond your power.* Here is Khalid
in the lower part of Makkah, there is az-Zubair in the upper
part of it, and there is the Prophet of Allah at the head
of the Emigrants, Ansar and Khuza'ah." To this Kuraish
replied, "And what are Khuza'ah with their mutilated
noses !"
The entrance into Makkah. 'Abd-al-Wahid ibn-Ghiyath
from abu-Hurairah : — The spokesman of Khuza'ah repeated
the following verse before the Prophet :
^akihi, p. 155; Wakkii, MaghAsi, p. 405.
'Fakihi, p. 150; Wtfc vol. i, p. 338.
64 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
" O Lord, I am seeking from Muhammad
the hereditary alliance between our father and his.
Reinforce therefore, with Allah's guidance, a mighty victory,
and summon the worshippers of Allah, and they will come for help." 1
Hammad states on the authority of 'Ikrimah that
Khuza'ah called the Prophet as he was washing himself, and
the Prophet replied, " Here I am I"
According to al-Wakidi among others, a band of Kuraish
took up arms on the day of the conquest [of Makkah]
saying, " Never shall Muhammad enter the city except by
force." Accordingly, Khalid ibn-al-Walid led the fight
against them and was the first to receive the order of the
Prophet to enter.2 So he killed twenty-four men from [the
tribe of] Kuraish and four from [the tribe of] Hudhail.
Others state that twenty-three men from Kuraish were
killed on that day and the rest took to flight seeking refuge 39
in the mountain heights which they climbed. , Of the Com-
panions of the Prophet, Kurz ibn-Jabir al-Fihri, and
Khalid al-Ash'ar al-Ka'bi suffered martyrdom on that day.
According to Hisham ibn-al-Kalbi, however, the latter of
the martyrs was Hubaish al-Ash'ar ibn-Khalid al-Ka'bi 8 of
the tribe of Khuza'ah.
Abu-Hurairdh describes the conquest. Shaiban ibn-abi-
Shaibah-l-Ubulli from ' Abdallah ibn-Rabdh : — A number of
deputations came to call on Mu'awiyah. It was in Ramadan,
and we used to prepare food for one another. Abu-
Hurairah was one of those who often invited us to his dwel-
ling-place. I [ibn-Rabah] therefore prepared a meal and
invited them. Then abu-Hurairah asked, " Shall I, O
Ansdr, amuse you with a narrative concerning you?" and
^abari, vol. i, pp. 1621-1622.
* Fakihi, p. 153, seq.
* " Khunais ibn-Khalid " in Hisham, p. 817.
MAKKAH 65
he went on to describe the conquest of Makkah as follows :
" The Prophet advanced until he came to Makkah. At the
head of one of the two wings of the army, he sent az-Zubair,
at the head of the other, Khalid ibn-al-Walid, and of the
infantry abu-'Ubaidah ibn-al-Jarrah. The way they took
was through the bottom of the valley. The Prophet was
at the head of his cavalry detachment. On seeing me the
Prophet called, 'Abu-Hurairah,' and I replied, ' Here I am,
Prophet of Allah.' 'Summon the Ansar,' said he, 'and let no
one come but my Ansar' I summoned them and they came
around- In the meantime, Kuraish had gathered their mob
and followers saying, ' Let us send these ahead. If they
win, we will join them; and if defeated, we shall give what-
ever is demanded/ 'Do ye see' said the Prophet, 'the
mob of Kuraish?' 'We do,' answered the Ansar. He
then made a sign with one hand over the other as if to say,
' kill them.' To this the Prophet added, ' Meet me at
as-Safa.' Accordingly we set out, each man killing whom-
ever he wanted to kill, until abu-Sufyan came to the Pro-
phet saying, ' O Prophet of Allah, the majority of Kuraish
is annihilated. There is no more Kuraish after this day.' *
The Prophet thereupon announced, 'He who enters the house
of abu-Sufyan is safe, he who closes his own door is safe, 40
and he who lays down his arms is safe.' On this the Ansar
remarked one to the other, 'The man is moved by love to his
relatives and compassion on his clan.' The Prophet at this
received the inspiration which we never failed to observe
whenever it came. He therefore said : ' O ye Ansar, ye
have said so and so ... ' ' We have, Prophet of Allah,'
replied the Ansar. ' Nay/ said the Prophet, ' I am the
slave of Allah and his Prophet. I have immigrated to Allah
and to you. ' My life is your life ; my death is your death !'
1 Fakihi, p. 154.
66 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Hearing this, the Ansar began to weep saying, 'By Allah, we
said what we said only in our anxiety to spare the Prophet
of Allah.' The people then crowded to the house of abu-
Sufyan and closed its doors laying down their arms. The
Prophet proceeded to the ' stone ' and laid hold of it. He
then made the circuit of the/ House ' and came, with a bow
in his hand held at its curved part, to an idol at the side of
the Ka'bah. He began to stab the eye of the idol saying,
'Truth has come and falsehood has vanished, it is the prop-
erty of vanity to vanish/ x When the circuit was done, he
came to as-Safa, climbed it until he could see the ' House/
and he raised his hand praising Allah and praying."
The Prophet's orders. Muhammad ibn-as-Sabb&h from
'Ubaidallah ibn-'Abdallah ibn-'Utbah : — On the occasion of
the conquest of Makkah, the Prophet made the following
statement, " Slay no wounded person, pursue no fugitive,
execute no prisoner; and whosoever closes his door is safe."
Ibn-Khatal proscribed. Al-Wakidi states that the in-
vasion in which the conquest was effected was carried on in
the month of Ramadan in the year 8. On that occasion
the Prophet remained in Makkah to the time of the festival
at the end of Ramadan, after which he proceeded to invade
Hunain. To the governorship of Makkah he assigned 'Attab
ibn-Asid ibn-abi-l-'Is ibn-Umaiyah, and ordered the de-
molishing of the idols and the effacement of the pictures that
stood in the Ka'bah. He also said, "Put ibn-Khatal to death,
even if ye find him holding the curtains of the Ka'bah." Ac-
cordingly, abu-BarzahM-Aslami put him to death. Accord- 41
ing to abu-al-Yakzan, however, the name of ibn-Khatal
was Kais, and the one who put him to death was abu-
Shiryab al-Ansari. This ibn-Khatal had two female slave-
1Kor., 17:83.
2 Al-Wakidi, p. 414, calls him abu-Bardah; cf. ibn-Duraid, Kitab
al-Ishtikak, p. 66; Nawawi, Tahdhib al-Asmf, p. 788; Hisham, p. 819.
MAKKAH 67
singers who always sang poems satirizing the Prophet One
of them was killed, and the other lived to the time of
'Uthman when a rib of hers was broken and caused her
death.
M iky as ibn-Subdbah proscribed. Numailah ibn-'Abdal-
lih al-Kinani killed Mikyas ibn-Subabah-1-Kinani, the Pro-
phet having announced that whosoever finds him may kill
him. The Prophet did this for the following reason:
Mikyas had a brother, Hashim ibn-Subabah ibn-Hazn, who
embraced Islam and witnessed with the Prophet the invasion
made on al-Muraisi'. Hashim was mistaken by one of the
Ansdr for a " polytheist " and killed. Mikyas thereupon
came to the Prophet and the Prophet decreed that the rela-
tives of the slayer responsible for the bloodwit should pay
it Mikyas received the bloodwit and became Moslem.
Later he attacked his brother's slayer, slew him and took
to flight, after which he apostatised from Islam and said :
" My soul has been healed by having him lie,
deep in the blood flowing from his veins his clothes soaked,
I took revenge on him by force leaving it,
for the leaders of banu-an-Najjar, the high in rank, to pay his
bloodwit,
thereby I attained my ambition, and satisfied my vengeance,
and I was the first to forsake Islam.9'1
ALHuwairith proscribed. 'Ali ibn-abi-Talib killed al-
Huwairith ibn-Nukaidh ibn-Bujair a ibn-'Abd ibn-Kusai, the
Prophet having declared that whosoever finds him may kill
him.
Ibn-Khatal's slave-singers. Bakr ibn-al-Haitham from
al-Kalbi : — A female slave-singer owned by Hilal ibn-' Abdal-
lah, i. e., ibn-Khatal al-Adrami of the banu-Taim, came to
the Prophet in disguise. She embraced Islam and acknowl-
1 Mawardi, pp. 229-230.
* Hisham, p. 819.
68 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
edged the Prophet as chief. Not knowing who she was,
the Prophet did not molest her. The other singer of Hilal
was killed. Both singers, however, used to sing satires
against the Prophet.
Ibn-az-Ziba'ra embraces Islam. Ibn-az-Ziba'ra as-Sahmi
embraced Islam before the Moslems had chance to kill him,
and sang poems in praise of the Prophet On the day of 42
the conquest of Makkah the Prophet declared his blood law-
ful, but he was not molested.
The Prophet's khutbah. Muhammad ibn-as-Sabbah al-
Bazzaz from al-Kasim ibn-Rabi'ah : — On the day of the battle
of Makkah the Prophet delivered the following khutbah
[speech] : " Praise be to Allah who made his promise true,
and gave his army victory1 and all alone defeated the
' confederates.' Verily every privilege of pre-Islamic time
and every blood and every claim lie under my feet with the
exception of the custody of the * House ' 2 and the provid-
ing of the Pilgrims with beverage."
Khalaf al-Bazzar from 'Abdallah ibn-'Abd-ar-Rahm&n's
sheikhs : — On the day of the conquest of Makkah the Prophet
asked Kuraish, " What think ye?" * to which they replied,
" What we think is good, and what we say is good. A noble
brother thou art, and the son of a noble brother. Thou
hast succeeded." The Prophet then said, " My answer is
that given by my brother Joseph,4 ' No blame be on you this
day. Allah will forgive you; for he is the most merciful
of the merciful.' Verily every debt, possession, and privi-
lege of pre-Islam lie under my feet with the exception of
the custody of the ' House ' and providing the pilgrims
with beverage."
lHisham, p. 821.
2 The sanctuary at Makkah; Azraki, p. 17 seq.
'labari, vol. i, p. 1642.
4KorM 12:92.
MAKKAH 69
Shaib&n from 'Abdallah ibn-'Ubaid ibn-'Umair :— The
Prophet said in his khutbah, " Yea, all Makkah is inviolable.
What is between its two rugged mountains was not lawful
for any one before me, nor will it be made for any after
me. To me it was made lawful for only one hour on one
day. Its fresh herbage shall not be cut, its thorny trees
shall not be felled, its game shall not be chased, what is
found x in it shall not be kept unless previous announce-
ment has been made of the find." AW Abbas said, " From
this should be excluded the idhkhir plant * to be used by our
jewelers, blacksmiths and as a means of cleansing * our
houses." The Prophet then added, " The idhkhir is ex-
cluded."
Yusuf ibn-Musa-1-Kattan from ibn-' Abbas : — The Prophet
said, " The fresh herbage of Makkah shall not be cut, its
trees shall not be felled." "With the exception of the 43
idhkhir plant," remarked al-' Abbas, " which is for the black-
smiths4 and for the cleansing of the houses." This the
Prophet allowed.
'Umar advised not to confiscate the treasure. Shaiban
from al-Hasan : — 'Umar wanted to seize the treasure of the
Ka'bah to use it in the cause of Allah. But Ubai ibn-Ka'b
al-Ansari turned to him and said : "Before thee, 'Commander
of the Believers ' came thy two companions ; 5 who would
have surely done so, if it were an act of virtue." 6
Makkah inviolable. 'Amr an-Nakid from Mujahid : T —
1Abu-Ishak ash-Shirazi, ot-Tanbih, p. 156.
*A sweet rush resembling papyrus used for roofing houses.
3 Ar. fuhur, according to other readings guh&r " and for the roofs/"
See Wakidi, tr. Wellhausen, pp. 338-339.
4Ar. kuy&n; Azraki, p. 85, has kubilr "graves".
* Muhammad and abu-Bakr.
'Caetani, vol. ii, p. 129, note 1.
7 ibn-Jabr ; see an-Nawawi, p. 540.
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Makkah is inviolable/' said the Prophet, " It is not legal
either to sell its dwellings or to rent its houses.1
The dwelling places of Makkah not to be rented.
Muhammad ibn-Hatim al-Marwazi from 'A'ishah who said,
" Once I said to the Prophet, ' Build for thee, Prophet of
Allah, a house in Makkah that will protect thee against the
sun,' to which he replied, ' Makkah is the dwelling place
only of those who are already in it' "
Khalaf ibn-Hisham al-Bazzar from ibn-Juraij who said,
" I have read a letter written by 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-cAziz
in which the renting of houses in Makkah is prohibited/9
Abu-'Ubaid from ibn-'Umar : — The latter said : " The
whole of al-Haram is a place of worship/' x
'Amr an-Nakid from 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-abi-Sulaiman :
— A message written by 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz to the
chief of Makkah reads : " Let not the inhabitants of Makkah
receive rent for their houses because it is not legal for them."
The following tradition regarding the text, "Alike for
those who abide therein and for the stranger * " was com-
municated to us by 'Uthman ibn-abi-Shaibah from 'Abd-ar-
Rahman ibn-S&bit : — By the stranger is meant the pilgrims
and visitors who go there and who have equal right in the
buildings, being entitled to live wherever they want, pro-
vided none of the natives of Makkah goes out of his home.
The following tradition regarding the same text was
communicated to us by TJthman on the authority of
Mujahid : — The inhabitants of Makkah and other people are
alike so far as the dwellings are concerned.
'Uthman and 'Amr from Mujahid : — 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab 44
once said to the people of Makkah, " Make no doors for
your houses that the stranger may live wherever he wants."
1Azrakx, p. 5 seq.
9 Kor., 22 : 25.
MAKKAH
71
'Uthman ibn-abi-Shaibah and Bakr ibn-al-Haitham from
abu-Hasin. — The latter said, " I once told Sa'id ibn-Jubair
in Makkah that I wanted to 'abide therein ' to which he re-
plied, ' Thou art already abiding therein ' and he read,
'Alike for those who abide therein and for the stranger.' "
The following tradition in explanation of the same text
was communicated to us by 'Uthman on the authority of
Sa'id ibn-Jubair: — All people in it are alike whether they
are the inhabitants of Makkah or of some other place.
Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from al-Wakidi : — Many cases were
brought before abu-Bakr ibn-Muhammad ibn-'Amr ibn-
Hazm regarding the rents of the houses of Makkah, and
abu-Bakr in each case judged against the tenant. This too
is the view of Malik and ibn-abi-Dhi'b. But according to
Rabi'ah and abu-az-Zinad, there is no harm in taking money
for renting houses or for selling dwellings in Makkah.1
Al-Wakidi said, " I saw ibn-abi-Dhi'b receiving the rent
of his house in Makkah between as-Safa and al-Marwah."
It was said by al-Laith ibn-Sa'd, "Whatever has the
form of a house its rent is legal for its proprietor. As
for the halls, the roads, the courts, and the abodes that
are in a state of ruins, he who comes to them first can
have them first without rent."
A tradition to the same effect was transmitted to me by
abu-'Abd-ar-Rahman al-Awdi on the authority of ash-
Shafi'i.
Said Sufyan ibn-Sa'id ath-Thauri : " To rent a house in
Makkah is illegal " ; and he insisted on that.
According to al-Auza'i, ibn-abi-Laila and abu-Hanifah,
if the rent is made during the nights of the Pilgrimage it
is void, but if it is in other nights, whether the one who
hires is a neighbor or not, it is all right.
1 Cf. Kutb-ad-Din, al-Vlam, p. 17.
72
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
According to certain followers of abu-Yusuf, its rent is
absolutely legal. The one " abiding therein " and the
" stranger " are alike only as regards making the circuit of
the " House."
The plants of the Haram. Al-Husain ibn-'Ali ibn-al-
Aswad from 'Abd-ar-Rahman ibn-al-Aswad : — The latter
found no harm in gathering vegetables, cutting, eating or
making any other use of anything else planted by man in 45
Makkah be it palm-trees or otherwise. He only disapproved
of this being done with trees and plants that grow of their
own accord without the agency of man. From this cate-
gory al-idhkhir was excluded. According to al-Hasan ibn-
Salih, 'Abd-ar-Rahman allowed it in the case of rotten trees
that have decayed and fallen to pieces.
According to the view of Malik and ibn-abi-Dhi'b, as
stated by Muhammad ibn-'Umar al-Wakidi, regarding the
legality or illegality of felling a tree of the Haram, it is wrong
at all events; but if the man who does it is ignorant he
should be taught and receive no penalty; if he knows but
is impious, he should be punished without paying the value
of the trees. He who cuts it may have it for his use.
According to abu-Sufyan ath-Thauri and abu-Yusuf, he
should pay the value of the tree he cuts and cannot have
the wood for his use. The same view is held by abu-
Hanifah.
According to Malik ibn-Anas and ibn-abi-Dhi'b, there is
no harm in cutting the branches of the thutndm plant and
the ends of the senna plant from the Haram to be used as
medicine or tooth-picks.
According to Sufyan ibn-Sa'id, abu-Hanifah, and abu-
Yusuf, whatever in the Haram is grown by man or was
grown by him can be cut with impunity ; whatever is grown
without the agency of man, its cutter should be responsible
for its value.
MAKKAH 73
" I once," said al-Wakidi," asked ath-Thauri and abu-
Yusuf regarding the case of one who plants in the Haram
something that is not ordinarily grown and which he tends
until it grows high, would it be right for him to cut it.
They answered in the affirmative. Then I asked about the
case of a tree that may grow of its own accord in his garden
and that does not belong to the category of trees planted
by man, and they said, ' He can do with it whatever he
likes.' "
Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from al-Wakidi : — The latter said,
" It has been reported to us that ibn-'Umar used to eat in
Makkah vegetables grown in the Haram."
Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from Mu'adh ibn-Muhammad : —
The latter said, " I have seen on the table of az-Zuhri vege-
tables grown in the Haram."
No pilgrim or visitor of the Haram," said abu-Hanif ah,
shall have his camel graze in the Haram, nor shall he cut
grass for it." The same view is held by Zufar. But Malik,
ibn-abi-Dhi'b, Sufyan, abu-Yusuf and ibn-abi-Sabrah are
of the opinion that there is no harm in having the animals
graze, but the man should not cut the grass for them. Ibn-
abi-Laila, however, holds that there is no harm in having
someone cut the grass.
'Affan and aT Abbas ibn-al-Walid an-Narsi from Laith : — 46
'Ata* found no harm in using the vegetables of the Haram as
well as what is planted therein including the branches and
the tooth-picks, but Mujahid disapproved of it.
The history of the Haratn-mosque. The Haram-mosque
at the time of the Prophet and abu-Bakr had no wall to sur-
round it When 'Umar, however, became caliph and the
number of the Moslems increased, he enlarged the mosque
and bought certain houses which he demolished to increase
its size. Certain neighbors of the mosque refused to sell
their houses and 'Umar had to demolish their houses, the
u
74
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
prices of which he deposited in the treasury of al-Ka'bah
until they took them later.1 Moreover he raised around
the mosque a low wall not higher than a man's stature. On
this wall the lamps were put. When 'Uthman ibn-'Affan
became caliph, he purchased certain dwellings and thereby
enlarged the mosque. Certain people whose dwellings he
seized after depositing their prices, met him near the
"House" with loud protests, upon which 'Uthman addressed
them as follows : " It is only my compassion on you and
my leniency in dealing with you that made you venture to
do this against me. 'Umar did exactly what I am doing
but ye kept silent and were satisfied." He then ordered
them to jail where they remained until 'Abdall£h ibn-Khalid
ibn-Asid* ibn-abi-l-'Is spoke to him on their behalf and
they were released.
It is reported that 'Uthman was the first to erect the
porches of the mosque, which he did on the occasion of
enlarging it.
In the days of Abraham, Jurhum and the 'Amalik, the
bottom of the door of the Ka'bah was level with the ground
until it was built by Kuraish, at which time abu-Hudhaifah
ibn-al-Mughirah said, "Raise, people, the door of the Ka'bah,
so that no one may enter without a ladder. Then would no
man whom ye do not want to enter be able to do so. In
case some one ye hate should come, ye may throw him down,
and he will fall injuring those behind." The suggestion
was followed by Kuraish.
When 'Abdallah ibn-az-Zubair ibn-al-'Auw&m fortified
himself in the Haram-mosque, taking refuge in it against
al-Husain ibn-Numair as-Sakuni who was fighting with a
Syrian army, one of 'Abdallah's followers carried one day
1Azra& p. 307.
2 or Usaid; see Azraki, p. 307.
MAKKAH 75
burning fibres of a palm-tree on the top of a lance. The
wind being violent, a spark flew and attached itself to the
curtains of the Ka'bah and burnt them. As a result, the
walls were cracked, and turned black. This took place in
the year 64. After the death of Yazid ibn-Mu'awiyah and
the departure of al-Husain ibn-Numair to Syria, ibn-az-
Zubair ordered that the stones that had been thrown into it *
be removed, and they were removed. He then demolished the
Ka'bah, and rebuilt it on its old foundation, using stones in
the building. He opened two doors on the ground, one to
the east, and the other to the west ; one for entrance and the
other for exit. In building it he found that the founda-
tion was laid on al-Hijr* His object was to give it the
shape it had in the days of Abraham, as it had been de-
scribed to him by 'A'ishah, the mother of the believers, on
the authority of the Prophet.* The doors of the Ka'bah,
ibn-az-Zubair plated with gold, and its keys he made of
gold. When al-Hajjaj ibn-Yusuf fought on behalf of
'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan and killed ibn-az-Zubair, 'Abd-
al-Malik wrote to al-Hajjaj ordering him to rebuild the
Ka'bah and the Haram-mosque, the stones hurled at it hav-
ing made cracks in the walls. Accordingly, al-Hajjaj pulled
the Ka'bah down and rebuilt it according to the shape given
it by Kuraish, removing all stones thereof. After this
'Abd-al-Malik often repeated, " I wish I had made ibn-az-
Zubair do with the Ka'bah and its structure what he volun-
tarily undertook to do !" 4
The cover of the Ka'bah. In pre-Islamic times the cover
1 Cf. $utb-ad-Din, p. 81.
'The space comprised by the curved wall al-Uatitn, which encom-
passes die Ka'bah on die north-west side.
* Kutb-ad-Din, p. 81.
* Ibid., p. 84.
47
76 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
of the Ka'bah consisted of pieces of leather and mafafir x
cloth. The Prophet covered it with Yamanite cloths,
'Umar and 'Uthman clothed it in Coptic cloths, and Yazid
ibn-Mu'awiyah clothed it in Khusruwani silk.2 After Yazid,
ibn-az-Zubair and al-Hajjaj clothed it in silk. The
Umaiyads during a certain part of their rule, clothed it in
robes offered as tribute by the people of Najran. The
Umaiyads used to strip * the Ka'bah of its old covers when
the cloths of silk were put on. At last came al-Walid ibn-
'Abd-al-Malik who amplified the Haram-mosque and con-
veyed to it columns of stone and marble, and mosaic. Ac-
cording to al-Wakidi, al-Mansur added to the mosque dur-
ing his caliphate and rebuilt it. This took place in the
year 139.
The reconstruction of the two mosques. It has been
stated by 'Ali ibn-Muhammad ibn-'Abdallah al-Mada'ini,
that Ja'far ibn-Sulaiman ibn-'Ali ibn-'Abdallah ibn-al-
'Abbas was made by al-Mahdi governor over Makkah, al-
Madinah and al-Yamamah. Ja'far enlarged the two mos-
ques of Makkah and al-Madinah and rebuilt them.
Al-Mutawakkil — Ja'far ibn-abi-Ishak al-Mu'tasim-Billah 48
ibn-ar-Rashid Harun ibn-al-Mahdi — ^renewed the marble of
the Ka'bah, made a belt of silver around it, plated its walls
and ceiling with gold — which act was unprecedented — , and
clothed its pillars with silk.4
1 A tribe in al-Yaman. See Nihdyah, vol. iii, p. 109; and cf. Yajcut,
vol. iv, p. 282.
* Cf. Azraki, p. 176; Kutb-ad-Din, p. 68.
'Azraki, p. 180.
* Kutb-ad-Din, p. 54-
CHAPTER VIII
The Wells of Makkah
Before Kusai brought Kuraish together, and before they
entered Makkah, they used for drinking purposes reservoirs,
rain-water tanks on mountain tops, a well called al-
Yusairah dug by Lu'ai ibn-Ghalib outside the Haram and
another well called ar-Rawa dug by Murrah ibn-Ka'b and
which lay just beyond 'Arafah. Later, Kilab ibn-Murrah 1
dug outside of Makkah three wells Khumm, Rumm and
Jafr; and Kusai ibn-Kilab dug another which he called
al-'Ajul and prepared a drinking place in connection with it.2
After the death of Kusai a certain man of the banu-Nasr
• • •
ibn-Mu'awiyah fell into al-'Ajul well and it was no more
used.
Badhdhar was a well dug by Hashim ibn-'Abd-Manaf.
It lies close to Khandamah at the mouth of abu-Talib's
water-course. This Hashim also dug Sajlah * which Asad
ibn-Hashim gave to 'Adi ibn-Naufal ibn-'Abd-Manaf abu-
1-Mut'im. It is asserted by some, however, that he sold
it to him, and by others that it was 'Abd-al-Muttalib who
gave it to him when he dug Zamzam and the water became
abundant in Makkah. This Sajlah was later included in 49
the Mosque.
'Abd-Shams ibn-'Abd-Manaf dug out at-Tawi which lay
in the upper part of Makkah. He dug out another for his
1 Azraki, pp. 436, 439, 496; Hisham, p. 95.
* A few verses composed in regard to this and other wells have been
omitted from the translation.
* Bakri, p. 766; Fakihi, p. 120.
77
78 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
special use called al-Jaf r. Maimun ibn-al-Hadram, an ally
of the banu-'Abd-Shams ibn-'Abd-Manaf , dug his own well
which was the last to be dug in Makkah during the pre-
Islamic period. Near by this well, lies the tomb of al-
Mansur the " Commander of the Believers." The first
name of al-Hadrami was 'Abdallah ibn-'Imad.1 Besides,
'Abd-Shams dug two wells which he called Khumm and
Rumm * after Kilab ibn-Murrah's wells. Khumm lay near
the dam, and Rumm near Khadijah's house.
Banu-Asad ibn-' Abd-al-'Uzza ibn-Kusai dug a well called
Shuf iyah, the well of the banu-Asad.*
Umm-Ahrad was one dug by the banu-'Abd-ad-Dar ibn-
Kusai.
Banu-Jumah dug as-Sunbulah well which is the same as 50
the well of Khalaf ibn-Wahb al-Jumahi.
Banu-Sahm dug the well called al-Ghamr which is the
well of al-'Asi ibn-Wa'il.
Banu-'Adi dug al-Haf ir. *
Banu-Makhzum dug as-Sukya, the well of Hisham ibn-
al-Mughirah ibn-'Abdallah ibn-'Umar ibn-Makhzum.
Banu-Taim dug ath-Thuraiya which is the well of
'Abdallah ibn-Jud*an ibn-'Amr ibn-Ka'b ibn-Sa'd ibn-Taim.
The banu-'Amir ibn-Lu'ai dug an-Nak*.
Jubair ibn-Mut'im had a well — the banu-Naufal well,
which has lately been included in Dar al-Kawarir erected by
Hammad al-Barbari in the caliphate of Harun ar-Rashid.4
In the pre-Islamic period, 'Akil ibn-abi-Talib had dug a
well which is now included in the house of ibn-Yusuf .*
Al-Aswad ibn-abi-1-Bakhtari ibn-Hashim ibn-al-Harith
ibn-Asad ibn-'Abd-al-'Uzza had at al-Aswad gate near by al-
1 Nawawi, p. 432. * Bakri, pp. 318, 437-438.
• Azraki, p. 438. * Azraki, p. 437.
• Azraki, p. 441.
THE WELLS OF MAKKAH yg
Hannatin [embalmers'] a well that was later added into the
Mosque.
'Ikrimah well was named after 'Ikrimah ibn-Khalid ibn-
al-'Asi ibn-Hashim ibn-al-Mughirah ; <Amr well, as well as
'Amr water-course, after 'Amr ibn-'Abdallah ibn-Safwan
ibn-Umaiyah ibn-Khalaf al-Jumahi. At-Talub, which lay
in the lower part of Makkah, was the property of 'Abdall&h
ibn-Safwan. Huwaitib well was named after Huwaitib
ibn-' Abd-al-'Uzza ibn-abi-Kais of banu-' Amir ibn-Lu'ai, and 5 1
it lay in the court of his house at the bottom of the valley.
Abu-Musa well belonged to abu-Musa-1-Ash'ari and lay at
al-Ma'lat. Shaudhab well was named after Shaudhab,
Mu'awiyah's f reedman, and was later added to the Mosque.
Some say that this Shaudhab was the freedman of Tarik
ibn-'Alkamah ibn-'Uraij ibn-Jadhimah-1-Kinani, others that
he was the freedman of Nafi* ibn-*Alkamah ibn-Safwan
ibn-Umaiyah . . . ibn-Shikk al-Kinani, a maternal uncle of
Marwan ibn-al-Hakam ibn-abi-l-*Asi ibn-Umaiyah. Bakkar
well was named after a man from al-'Irak who lived in
Makkah, and it lay in dhu-Tuwa; Wardan well after
Wardan, a freedman of as-Sa'ib1 ibn-abi-Wada'ah ibn-
Dubairah as-Sahmi. Sirij drinking place lay in Fakh
and belonged to Si raj, a freedman of the banu-Hashim.
Al-Aswad well was named after al-Aswad ibn-Sufyan . . .
ibn-Makhzum and lay near the well of Khalisah, a f reed-
maid of al-Mahdi the " Commander of the Believers." Al-
Barud which lay in Fakh belonged to Mukhtarish 2 al-Ka'bi
of [the tribe of] Khuza'ah.
Certain houses and gardens in Makkah. According to
ibn-al-Kalbi, the owner of ibn-'Alkamah house in Makkah
was Tarik ibn-'Alkamah ibn-'Uraij ibn-Jadhimah-1-Kinani.
1 Azraki, p. 442, gives al-Muttalib; cf. Hisham, p. 462.
1 Azraki, p. 442, gives Khirash.
80 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
According to abu-'Ubaidah Ma'mar ibn-al-Muthanna, 'Abd-
al-Malik ibn-Kuraib al-Asma'i and others, ibn-'Amir garden
was the property of 'Umar ibn-'Ubaidallah . . . ibn-Lu'ai
and was by mistake called ibn-'Amir or the banu-'Amir
garden. In reality, it is ibn-Ma'mar's garden. Others say
that it was so called after ibn-'Amir al-Hadrami ; still others,
after ibn-'Amir ibn-Kuraiz, and all that is mere guessing.
I was told by Mus'ab ibn-'Abdallah az-Zubairi that
Makkah in pre-Islamic times was called Salah.
Ibn-Siba' jail. The following was told to me by al-' Abbas 52
ibn-Hisham al-Kalbi : — A certain Kindi inquired in writing
from my father about the one after whom ibn-Siba' jail
of al-Madinah was named, about the story of Dar an-
Nadwah, Dar al-'Ajalah, and Dar al-Kawarir in Makkah.
My father wrote back the following answer : "As for ibn-
Siba' jail, it was a house for 'Abdallah ibn-Siba* ibn-'Abd-
al-'Uzza ibn-Nadlah ibn-'Amr ibn-Ghubshan al-Khuza*i.
Siba* was surnamed abu-Niyar and his mother was a midwife
in Makkah. In the battle of Uhud, he was challenged by
Hamzah ibn-'Abd-al-Muttalib who cried, ' Come, thou son
of the female circumciser ! • » and killed him. As Hamzah
stooped on his victim to take his armor, he was thrust with
a spear by Wahshi. The mother of the poet Turaih ibn-
Isma'il ath-Thakafi was the daughter of 'Abdallah ibn-Sibi',
an ally of the banu-Zuhrah.
Dar an-Nadwah. As for an-Nadwah [council-chamber] ,
it was built by Kusai ibn-Kilab, and people used to meet
in it and have the cases decided.2 Later, Kuraisfr used to
assemble in it to consult about war and general affairs, to
assign the standard-bearers and to contract marriages. This
was the first house established in Makkah by Kuraish.
1 " An expression of contumely used by the Arabs whether the mother
is really a female circumciser or not." (Taj al-'Arus.)
* Azraki, pp. 65, 66; Diyarbakri, vol. i, p. 175; Tabari, vol, i, p. 1098;
Istakhri, p. 16.
THE WELLS OF MAKKAH 8l
Dor al-'Ajaldh. Then comes Dar al-'Ajalah which belonged
to Sa'id ibn-Sa'd ibn-Sahm. The banu-Sahm claim that
it was built before an-Nadwah; but this is a false claim.
An-Nadwah remained in the hands of the banu-'Abd-ad-Dar
ibn-Kusai until it was sold by 'Ikrimah ibn-Hashim ibn-
'Abd-Manaf ibn-'Abd-ad-Dar ibn-Kusai to Mu'awiyah ibn-
abi-Sufyan, and the latter converted it into a governor's
house.
Par al-Kawafir. Dar al-Kawarir belonged to 'Utbah ibn-
Rabi'ah ibn-'Abd-Shams ibn-'Abd-Man^f, then to al-' Ab-
bas ibn-'Utbah ibn-'Abd-Shams ibn-'Abd-al-Muttalib, and
later to Ja'far's mother, Zubaidah, daughter of abu-1-Fadl
ibn-al-Mansur the "Commander of the Believers." Be-
cause earthen jars were partly used in making its pavement
and walls, the hall was called al-Kawarir [the jar build-
ing] . It was built by Hammad al-Barbari in the caliphate 53
of ar-Rashid.
Ku'aiki'dn and Ajyad. It was related by Hisham ibn-
Muhammad al-Kalbi that 'Amr ibn-Mu^4d al-Jurhumi
fought with another Jurhum man named as-Sumaida'.
'Amr appeared carrying arms that were rattling. Hence
Ku'aiki'an [rattling] the name of the place from which he
appeared. As-Sumaida' appeared with bells covering his
horses' necks. Hence Ajyad [necks] the name of the place
whence he appeared. According to ibn-al-Kalbi, it was
said that he appeared with horses that were marked, hence
the name Ajyad [steeds]. The common people of Makkah,
however, call it " Jiyad as-Saghir " and " Jiy£d al-Kabir."
Al-Walid ibn-Salih from Kathir ibn-'Abdall&h's grand-
father, who said : — "We accompanied 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab
on his visit in the year 1 7, and on the way were met by the
owners of the wells, who asked 'Umar for permission to build
dwelling places between Makkah and al-Madinah where, up
to that time, no houses stood. 'Umar granted them per-
mission, but imposed the condition that the wayfarer should
have the first claim on the water and shade."
CHAPTER IX
The Floods in Makkah
Umm-Nahshal Hood. A1-' Abbas ibn-Hisham from ibn-
Kharrabudh al-Makki and others : — Makkah was visited by
four floods. One was umm-Nahshal flood which took place
in the days of 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab.1 This flood rose so
high that it penetrated into the MQsque from the highest
part of Makkah. 'Umar therefore made two dams, the
higher of which extended between the house of Babbah
(so called by its occupants, the house being that of 'Abdallah
ibn-al-Harith ibn-'Abd-al-Muttalib ibn-'Abd-Manaf who
ruled al-Basrah at the time of the insurrection of ibn-az-
Zubair) and the house of Aban ibn-'Uthman ibn-'Affan.
The lower dam lay at al-Hammarin ; and it is the one known
as Al-Asid dam. Thus was the flood kept back from the
IJaram mosque. According to the same tradition umm-
Nahshal, the daughter of 'Ubaidah* ibn-Sa'id ibn-al-'Asi
ibn-Umaiyah, was carried away by the flood from the higher 54
part of Makkah and therefore was the flood named after her.
ALJuhaf w-al-Jurdf. Another flood was that of al-
Juhaf w-al-Juraf which took place in the year 80 in the time
of 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan. It overtook the pilgrims on
a Monday morning and carried them away together with
their baggage, and surrounded the Ka'bah. About this the
poet said:
lAxray, pp. 394-35A
• Azrafci, pp. 394-395: "'Ubaid".
82
THE FLOODS IN MAKKAH 83
"Ghassan never saw a day like Monday,
when so many were saddened and so many eyes wept;
and when the flood carried away the people of al-Mi§rain 1
and made the secluded women run astray climbing the mountains." *
On this occasion, 'Abd-al-Malik wrote to his 'dtnil in
Makkah, 'Abdallah ibn-Sufy&n al-Makhzumi — others say
that the poet al-Harith ibn-Khalid al-Makhzumi was his
'amil — ordering him to build walls without clay around the
houses that bordered on the valley, and around the Mosque,
and to erect dams at the openings of the roads, so that the
houses should be secure. To this effect, he sent a Christian
who made the walls and set up the dam known as the banu-
l^urad's or banu-Jumah's. Other dams were constructed
in lower Makkah. A poet says :
M One drop of tears I shall keep, the other I shall pour forth,
if I pass the dam of the banu^Kurad."
Al-MukhabbiL Another flood was the one called al-
Mukhabbil. When it came, many were afflicted with a
disease in their body and palsy in their tongues. Hence the
name al-Mukhabbil [rendering some limb crippled].
Abu-Shakir. Still another flood came later in the cali-
phate of Hisham ibn-' Abd-al-Malik in the year 120. It is
known as abu-Shakir flood after Maslamah ibn-Hisham,
who in that year had charge of the fair [of the pilgrims].
Wadi-Mdkkah. The flood of Wadi-Makkah comes from
a place known as Sidrat 'Att&b ibn-Asid ibn-abi-1-ts.
The Hood in the caliphate of ar-Rashid. It was reported
by 'Abbas ibn-Hisham that a great flood took place in the
caliphate of al-Ma'mum 'Abdallah ibn-ar-Rashid ; and its
water rose almost as high as the " stone/' *
1 Al-Basrah and al-Kuf ah.
1 Cf. Azraki, p. 396.
1 The " black stone " of al-Ka1>ah ; Azratf , p. 307.
g4 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
The limits of al-Haram. Al-' Abbas from 'Ikrimah : — A
part of the limits set to al-Haram having been obliterated in
the days of Mu'awiyah ibn-abi-Suf yan, he wrote to Marwan 55
ibn-al-Hakam, his 'amil in al-Madinah, ordering him to ask
Kurz ibn-'Alkamah-l-Khuza'i, if he were still alive, to es-
tablish the limits of al-Haram, since he was familiar with
them. Kurz was still alive; and he established the limits
which are today the marks of al-Haram. According to al-
Kalbi, this was Kurz ibn-'Alkamah ibn-Hilal ibn-Juraibah
ibn-'Abd-Nuhm ibn-Hulail ibn-Hubshiyah-1-Khuza'i, the one
who followed the steps of the Prophet to the cave in which
the Prophet, accompanied by abu-Bakr as-Siddik, had dis-
appeared, when he wanted to take the Hegira to al-
Madinah. Kurz saw on the cave a spider web, and below it,
the Prophet's foot-print which he recognized saying, " This
is the Prophet's foot, but here the track is lost."
CHAPTER X
At-Ta'if
The Prophet lays siege to at-Ta'if. When the Hawazin were
defeated in the battle of Hunain, and Duraid ibn-as-Simmah
was slain, the surviving remnant came to Awtas. The Pro-
phet sent them abu-'Amir al-Ash'ari who was put to death.
Then abu-Musa 'Abdallah ibn-Kais al-Ash'ari took the com-
mand and the Moslems advanced on Awtas. Seeing that,
the chief of the Hawazin at that time, Malik ibn-'Auf ibn-
Sa'd of banu-Duhman ibn-Nasr ibn-Mu'awiyah ibn-Bakr ibn-
Hawazin, fled to at-Ta'if, whose people he found ready for
the siege with their fortress repaired and the provisions
gathered therein. Here he settled. The Prophet led the
Moslems until they got to at-Ta'if. Thakif hurled stones
and arrows on the Moslems, and the Prophet set a ballista
on the fortress. The Moslems had a mantelet 1 made of
cows' skins on which Thakif threw hot iron bars and burnt
it, killing the Moslems underneath. The siege of at-Ta'if
by the Prophet lasted for fifteen days,2 the invasion having
begun in Shauwal, in the year 8.
Certain slaves surrender. Certain slaves from at-Ta'if
presented themselves before the Prophet. Among them
were abu-Bakrah ibn-Masruh, — [later] the Prophet's freed- eg
1 Ar. dabbdbah — a machine made of skins and wool, men enter into
it and it is propelled to the lower part of a fortress where the men,
protected from what is thrown upon them, try to make a breach. See
Zaidan, Tafrikh at-Tamoddun ol-Isl&mi, vol. i, p. 143.
1 Cf. Hisham, p. 872.
85
86 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
man, and whose [first] name was Nufai' — , and al-Azrak —
after whom the Azarikah were named, who was a Greek
blacksmith and slave, and whose [full] name was abu-Nafi'
ibn-al-Azrak al-Khariji. For doing so, these slaves were
set free.1 It is claimed by others, however, that Nafi' ibn-
Azrak al-Khariji was of the banu-Hanifah and that the al-
Azrak who came from at-Ta'if was another man.
The terms of capitulation. Then the Prophet left for al-
Ji'ranah to divide the captives and the booty of Hunain.2
Thakif , fearing lest he should return, sent a deputation with
whom he made terms stipulating that they become Moslem,
and keep what they possess in the form of money or buried
treasures.* The Prophet imposed a condition on them that
they would neither practise usury nor drink wine. They
were addicted to usury. To this end, he wrote them a
statement.
The old name of at-Ta'if was Wajj. When it was for-
tified and surrounded by a wall it was called at-Ta'if.
The Jews in at-Tffif. Al-Mada'ini from certain sheikhs
from at-Ta'if : — In the district of at-Ta'if lived some Tews
driven from al-Yaman and Yathrib, who had settled
there for trade. On them poll-tax was imposed. It was
from some of them that Mu'awiyah bought his possessions
in at-Ta'if.
The land of at-Ta'if is included in the district of Makkah.
A1-' Abbas ibn-'Abd-al-Muttalib had a piece of land in
at-Ta'if from which grapes were taken and made into the
beverage used for the Pilgrims. The men of Kuraish
had possessions in at-Ta'if to which they came from
1 Cf. Hisham, p. 874.
2Tabari, vol. i, p. 1670; abu-1-Fida, al-Mukhtasar, vol. i, p. 147
(CJro, 1325).
* Ar. ar-rik&s, treasures buried in pre-Islamic days ; Bukhari, vol. i, p.
381 ; Mawardi, p. 207.
AT-TA'IF 87
Makkah to repair. The conquest of Makkah and the con-
version of its people to Islam made Thakif covet and lay
hold on these possessions, but with the conquest of at-^a'if ,
they were again put in the hands of the Makkans, and in
fact all the land of at-Ta'if became one of the districts of
Makkah.
AburSufyan loses his eye. It was in the battle of at-
Ta'if that abu-Sufyan ibn-Harb lost his eye.1
The zakat from Thakif on grapes and dates. Al-Walid
ibn-Salih from 'Attab ibn-Asid : — The Prophet ordered that
the vine-trees of Thakif be estimated as in the case of dates
and that the zakat [legal alms] be taken in the form of
raisins, as in the case of dates.
According to al-Wakidi, abu-Hanifah says : " The vine-
trees are not estimated, but when the produce, whether large 57
or small, is gathered the zakat is taken."
According to Ya'kub : " If the produce is gathered and
the weight of it is five wasks [loads] then its zakat is one-
tenth or half of one-tenth." The same view is held by
Suf yan ibn-Sa'id ath-Thauri. The wask is equal to 60 sd's*
Malik ibn-Anas and ibn-abi-Dhi'b state that according to
the commended practice [Ar. sunnah] the zakat on grape is
taken by estimation as in the case of dates.8
The zakat on honey. Shaiban ibn-abi-Shaibah from
'Amr ibn-Shu'aib : — A 'amil of 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab in at-
Ta'if wrote to 'Umar, " Those who own honey fail to con-
tribute to us what they used to contribute to the Prophet,
i. e., one vase out of each ten." 'Umar wrote back to him,
" If they would contribute, thou shouldst protect their val-
leys, otherwise do not."
1 Diyarbakri, vol. ii, p. 124.
* Yahya ibn-Adam, Kitab al-Kharaj, p. 100.
• Malik ibn-Anas, al-Muwajfa, pp. 116-117; and cf. Shafi'i, Kit&b a/-
Umm, vol. ii8, p. 27.
88 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
'Amr ibn-Muhammad an-Nakid from 'Abd-ar-Rahman
• • •
ibn-Ishak's grandfather: — 'Umar assessed one-tenth in the
case of honey.
Da'ud ibn-'Abd-al-Hamid the kadi of ar-Rakkah from
• • • • •
Khasif: — 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz wrote to his 'amils in
Makkah and at-Ta'if, " There is sadakah on the bee-hives.
Therefore, take it thereof." According to al-W&kidi, it has
been reported that ibn-'Umar said, " There is no sadakah on
hives." According to Malik and ath-Thauri, no zakat is
taken on honey though it may be in great quantities.1 The
same is the view of ash-Shafi'i.8 According to abu-Hanifah,
if the honey is raised in a tithe-land the tithe is taken whether
the honey is much or little; but if it is raised in the kharaj-
land, nothing is to be taken, because both zakat and kharaj
cannot be taken from one and the same man.
Al-Wakidi states that he was told by al-Kasim ibn-Ma'n
and Ya'kub that abu-Hanifah said : " If honey is raised in
the land of a dhimmi there is no tithe on it, but there is
kharaj on the land. And if it is produced in the land of a
Taghlabi 8 one-fifth is taken thereof." The same view is
held by Zufar. According to abu-Yusuf,* if the honey is
produced in the kharaj-land, it is exempt of everything ; but
if in the tithe land, one rati s is taken out of ten.
According to Muhammad ibn-al-Hasan, no sadakah what- 58
ever is taken on what is less than five faraks? The same
view is held by ibn-abi-Dhi'b.
1 Muwotfa, p. 121.
2 Umm, vol. ii*f p. 33.
* Banu-Taghlib were Christian Arabs on whom 'Umar-ibn al-Khaftab
doubled the tax. See abu-Yusuf , Kitab al-Khardj, p. 68.
* Yusuf , p. 40.
* A rati is about 5 pounds.
* A farafc is 16 rafts. Nih&yoh, vol. iii, p. 196.
AT-TA'IF 89
It was reported by Khalid ibn-'Abdallah at-Tahhan that
ibn-abi-Laila said, " Whether it is produced in the tithe-
or khardj-land, one rati is due on every ten. The same view
is held by al-Hasan ibn-Salih ibn-Hai.
A tradition reported to me by abu-'Ubaid on the authority
of az-Zuhri states that the latter held that one vase
[At. zikk] x is due on every ten.
The tithe on fruits and grains. Yahya ibn-Adam f rorji
Bishr ibn-'Asim and 'Uthman ibn-'Abdallah ibn-Aus:— «
Sufyin ibn-'Abdallah ath-Thakafi wrote to 'Umar ibn-al-
Khattab, whose 'anvil he was in at-Ta'if , stating that before
him was the case of a garden in which vine-trees grow, as
well as plum and pomegranate trees and other things that
are many folds more productive than vines, and soliciting
'Umar's orders regarding the taking of its tithe. But
'Umar wrote back, " No tithes on it"
It was stated by Yahya ibn-Adam that he heard Sufyan
ibn-Sa'id (whose view is the following) say: — "There is no
sadakah except on four of the products of the soil, i. e.,
wheat, barley, dates and raisins, provided the product meas-
ures five wasks." * But abu-Hanif ah's view is that whatever
the tithe-land produces is subject to the tithe, though it be a
bundle of vegetables. The same view is held by Zufar.
But according to the view of Malik, ibn-abi-Dhi'b and
Ya'kub, vegetables and the like are not subject to sadakah.
Nor is there sadakah on what is less than five wasks of
wheat, barley, maize, husked barley, tare, dates, raisins, rice,
sesame, peas and the grains that can be measured and stored,
including lentils, beans, Indian peas and millet. If any of
these measure five wasks, then it is subject to sadakah. The
same view, according to al-Wakidi, is held by Rabi'ah ibn-
1 A receptacle of skin for holding wine and the like.
•Yahya ibn-'Adam, Kitdb al-Khardj, pp. 109- no.
9Q
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
abi-'AM-ar- Rahman. According to az-Zuhri all spices and
pulse * is subject to zakat. Malik holds that no sadakah
is due on pears, plums, pomegranates or the rest of the fresh
fruits. The same view is held by ibn-abi-Laila. Accord-
ing to abu-Yusuf , there is no sadakah except on what can 59
be measured by al-kafig* Abu-az-Zinad ibn-abi-Dhi'b and
ibn-abi-Sabrah hold that no sadakah is taken on vegetables
and fruits, but there is sadakah on their prices the moment
they are sold.
A tradition was communicated to me by 'Abbas ibn-
Hisham on the authority of his grandfather to the effect
that the Prophet assigned 'Uthman ibn-abi-l-'Asi ath-Thakaft
as his 'dmil in at-Ta'if.
1 Seed of a leguminous plant that is cooked.
1 Adam, p. 101.
CHAPTER XI
Tabalah and Jurash
Bakr ibn-al-Haitham from az-Zuhri: — The people of
Tabalah and Jurash * accepted Islam without resistance.'
The Prophet left them on the terms agreed upon when they
became Moslems, imposing on every adult of the " People
of the book " * among them one dinar, and making it a
condition on them to provide the Moslem wayfarers with
board and lodging. Abu-Sufyan ibn-Harb was assigned
by the Prophet as the governor of Jurash.
1 Cities in al-Yaman; Bakri, pp. 191 and 238; Hamdani, Jasirat al-
'Arab, p. 127, line 19; Yakut, vol. i, p. 817 and vol. ii, p. 60.
* Tabari, vol. i, p. 1730.
'Jews and Christians.
91
CHAPTER XII
Tabuk, Ailah, Adhruh, Makna and al-Jarba'
Tabuk makes terms. When in the year 9 the Prophet
marched to Tabuk in Syria for the invasion of those of the
Greeks, 'Amilah, Lakhm, Judham and others whom he
learnt had assembled against him, he met no resistance.1
So he spent a few days in Tabuk, whose inhabitants made
terms with him agreeing to pay poll-tax.
Ailah makes terms. During his stay at Tabuk, there came
to him Yuhanna ibn-Ru'bah, the chief of Ailah, and made
terms, agreeing to pay on every adult in his land one dinar
per annum making it 300 dinars in all. The Prophet made it
a condition on them that they provide with board and lodg-
ing whomsoever of the Moslems may pass by them. To
this effect he wrote them a statement* that they may be
kept safe and protected.
Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from Talhah-1-Aili : — 'Umar ibn-
'Abd-al-'Aziz never raised the tax of the people of Ailah
above 300 dinars.*
Adhruh makes terms. The Prophet made terms with the
people of Adhruh 4 stipulating that they pay 100 dinars in
Rajab of every year.
Al-Jarba' makes terms. The people of al-Jarba' * made
1 Ibn-Sa'd, vol. ii1, p. 118; Hisham, p. 893; Tabari, vol. i, p. 1692.
1 Hisham, p. 902.
• Wellhausen, Das Arabische Reich, p. 173.
4 Yakut, vol. i, p. 174; Istakhri, p. 58; Mukaddasi, p. 54.
• Yakut, vol. ii, p. 46.
92
TABVK, AILAH, ADHRUff, MAKNA AND AL-JARBA' 93
terms and agreed to pay poll-tax. To this effect the Prophet
wrote them a statement.
Makna makes terms. The people of Makna made terms 60
with the Prophet, agreeing to offer one-fourth of what they
fish and spin, one- fourth of their horses and coats of mail,
and one-fourth of their fruits. The inhabitants of Makna
■
were Jews.1 An Egyptian told me that he saw with his
own eye the statement that the Prophet wrote them on a red
parchment, the writing on which was partly effaced, and
which he copied and dictated to me as follows :
" In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful.
From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, to the banu-
Habibah and the inhabitants of Makna : peace be with you.
It has been revealed unto me from above that ye are to
return to your village. From the time this my letter reaches
you, ye shall be safe ; and ye have the assurance of security
from Allah and from his Messenger. Verily, the Messen-
ger of Allah has forgiven you your sins and all blood for
which ye have been pursued. In your village, ye shall have
no partner but the Messenger of Allah or the Messenger's
messenger. There shall be no oppression on you nor hostility
against you. Against whatever the Prophet of Allah protects
himself, he will protect you. Only to the Prophet of Allah
shall belong your cloth-stuff, slaves, horses 2 and coats of
mail, save what the Prophet or the Prophet's messenger shall
exempt. Besides that, ye shall give one-fourth of what
your palm-trees produce, one- fourth of the product of your
nets, and one-fourth of what is spun by your women; but
all else shall be your own ; and God's Prophet has exempted
you from all further poll-tax or forced labor. Now, if ye
1 Wakidi, tr. Wellhausen, p. 405.
3 Ar. kura', see Nihayah, vol. iv, p. 16; and Mutarrizi, vol. ii, p. 148;
Margoliouth translates " camp-followers " in Zaidan's Umayyads and
Abbasids, p. 121.
94
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
hear and obey, it will be for the Prophet to do honor to the
honorable among you and pardon those among you who do
the wrong. Whosoever of the banu-Habibah and the in-
habitants of Makna bethinks himself to do well to the
Moslems, it shall be well for him; and whosoever means
mischief to them, mischief shall befall him. Ye are to have
no ruler save of your number of the family of the Prophet
Written by 'Ali-ibn-abu-Talib * in the year 9."
1Sict Being genitive, it should be "abi". See note in De Goeje's
edition, p. 6a
CHAPTER XIII
DUMAT AL-jANDAL
Khalid ibn-al-Watid captures Ukaidir. The Prophet 61
sent Khalid ibn-al-Walid ibn-al-Mughirah-1-Makhzumi to
Ukaidir ibn-'Abd-al-Malik al-Kindi, later as-Sakuni, at
Dumat al-Jandal.1 Khalid took him captive, killed his
brother, robbed him of a silk cloak a interwoven with gold,
and brought Ukaidir before the Prophet Ukaidir accepted
Islam,* upon which the Prophet wrote for him and the
people of Dumat the following statement : —
" This is a statement from Muhammad, the Prophet of
Allah, to Ukaidir as he accepted Islam and forsook the
objects of worship and idols, and to the people of Dumat : —
To us shall belong the water-places outside the city, the un-
titled lands, the deserts and waste lands, as well as the de-
fensive and offensive weapons, the horses, and the fortress ;
and to you shall belong the palm-trees within the city, and
the running water. Your cattle which are pasturing shall
not, for the purpose of taking the sadakah, be brought to-
gether [but shall be numbered on the pasture-land], and
what is above the fixed number of animals from which a
sadakah is required shall not be taken into consideration.4
Your herds shall graze wherever ye want, and ye shall ob-
1 Ya^ut, vol. ii, p. 625.
1 Tabari, vol. i, pp. 1702-1703.
* Diyarbakri, vol. ii, p. 142; Athir, vol. ii, p. 214.
4 Cf. Sprenger, Das Leben und die Lehre des Mohammad, vol. iii,
p. 410-
95
96 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
serve prayer in its time, and pay the zakdt as it is due. To
this effect, I give you the covenant of Allah and his promise,
and ye are entitled to our sincerity as regards the fulfillment
of the terms. Witnessed by Allah and those of the Moslems
who are present"
Ukaidir violates the covenant. Al-' Abbas ibn-Hishaxn 62
al-Kalbi from his grandfather: — The Prophet sent Khalid
ibn-al-Walid to Ukaidir. Ukaidir was brought by Khalid
before the Prophet; he became a Moslem, and the Prophet
wrote him a statement. But no sooner had the Prophet
been dead, than Ukaidir stopped the payment of the sadakah,
violated the covenant and left Dumat al-Jandal for al-Hirah,
where he erected a building and called it Dumat after
Dumat al-Jandal. His brother, however, Huraith 1 ibn-
'Abd-al-Malik embraced Islam and thereby entered into pos-
session of the property held by his brother.2
HuraitWs daughter marries. Yazid ibn-Mu'awiyah
married the daughter of Huraith, Ukaidir's brother.
Abu-Bakr sends Khalid against Ukaidir. Al-' Abbas from
'Awanah ibn-al-Hakam : — Abu-Bakr wrote to Khalid ibn-al-
Walid, when the latter was at 'Ain at-Tamr, ordering him
to go against Ukaidir, which he did, killing Ukaidir and
capturing Dumat. After the death of the Prophet, Ukaidir
left Dumat and then returned to it. Having killed him,
Khalid went to Syria.
Laila daughter of al-Judi a captive. According to al-
Wakidi, on Khalid's way from al-'Irak to Syria, he passed
through Dumat al-Jandal, which he captured, carrying away
many captives, among whom were Laila, the daughter of
al-Judi-1-Ghassani. Others say Laila was carried away by
Khalid's horsemen from a Ghassan settlement stationed by 63
1 Ibn-Qajar, vol. i, p. 773, by mistake gives "Huraib".
1 One verse omitted.
DOM AT AL-JANDAL gy
a watering-place [hddir]. It was this daughter of al-Judi
whom 'Abd-ar-Rahman ibn-abi-Bakr as-Siddik had fallen
• • • ■
in love with, and the one whom he meant when he said :
" I thought of Laila with as-Samawah l intervening between ;
and what has the daughter of al-Judi to do with me?"
Thus did he win her hand and marry her. But such a hold
had she on him that he gave up all his other wives. At
last, however, she was affected with such a severe disease
that her looks were changed and he no more liked her. He
was advised to give her what is usually given at divorce *
and send her to her own people, which he did.
Al-Wakidi's version of the conquest. According to al-
Wakidi, the Prophet led the invasion against Dumat al-
Jandal in the year 5 and met no resistance. In Shauwal,
year 9, he sent Khalid ibn-al-Walid to Ukaidir, twenty
months after the former had embraced Islam.
The reconstruction of Dumat al-Jandal. I heard it said
by someone from al-Hirah that Ukaidir and his brothers
used to go to Dumat al-Hirah and visit their uncles of the
Kalb tribe and spend some time with them. One day as they
were together on a hunting trip, there arose before their
view a city in ruins with only few walls standing. The
city was built of stones [ Ar. jandal] . This city they rebuilt,
planted in it olive- and other trees, and called it Dumat
al-Jandal in distinction from Dumat al-Hirah.'
Az-Zuhri's version of the conquest. 'Amr ibn-Muham-
mad an-Nakid from az-Zuhri: — The Prophet sent Khalid
ibn-al-Walid ibn-al-Mughirah to the people of Dumat al-
Jandal who were some of the Christians of al-Kufah.
Khalid captured Ukaidir, their chief, and arranged to re-
ceive poll-tax from him.
1 A desert from Dumat to 'Ain at-Tamr ; Istakhri, p. 23.
1 Ar. mufah. Muwatfo, p. 208. • Caetani, vol. ii, p. 263.
CHAPTER XIV
>
The Capitulation of Najran
The terms agreed upon. Bakr ibn-al-Haitham from az- 64
Zuhri : — There came to the Prophet the military chief and
the civil chief,1 delegated by the people of Najran in al-
Yaman, and asked for terms which they made on behalf of
the people of Najran, agreeing to offer two thousand robes
—one thousand in Safar and one thousand in Rajab — each
one of which should have the value of one ounce [aukiyah] ,
the ounce weighing 40 dirhams. In case the price of the
robe delivered should be more than one ounce, the surplus
would be taken into consideration ; and if it were less, the de-
ficiency should be made up. And whatever weapons, horses,
camels or goods they offered, should be accepted instead of
the robes, if they are the same value. Another condition
was made that they provide board and lodging for the Pro-
phet's messengers for a month or less, and not detain them
for more than a month. Still another condition was that
in case of war in al-Yaman, they are bound to offer as loan
thirty coats of mail, thirty mares and thirty camels, and
whatever of these animals perish, the messengers [of the
Prophet] guarantee to make up for them. To this effect, the
Prophet gave them Allah's covenant and his promise. An-
other condition was that they be not allured to change their
religion or the rank they hold in it, nor should they be called
upon for military service or made to pay the tithe." The
1 Hisham, p. 401. * Cf. Yusuf, pp. 40-41.
98
THE CAPITULATION OF NAJRAN ^
Prophet made it a condition on them that they neither take
nor give usury.
The two monks of Najrdn and the Prophet Al-Husain
ibn-al-Aswad from al-Hasan : — There came to the Prophet
two monks from Najran.1 The Prophet proposed Islam
to them, and they replied, "We embraced Islam before thou
didst" To this the Prophet replied, " Ye have told a lie.
Three things keep you from Islam : pork eating, cross-wor-
ship and the claim that Allah has a son." " Well then," said
they, " who is 'Isa's father?" Al-Hasan adds that the Pro-
phet was never too quick but always waited for Allah's com-
mand. Hence the text revealed by his Lord:" "These
signs and this wise warning do we rehearse to thee. Verily,
Jesus is as Adam in the sight of Allah. He created him of
dust : He then said to him, ' Be ' — and he was," etc. to " on
those who lie."
This the Prophet repeated to them and then asked them
to join with him in imprecating the curse of Allah upon
whichever of them was wrong,* taking hold of the hands of
Fatimah, al-Hasan and al-Husain. At this, one of the two
• 9 • • 9
monks said to the other, " Climb the mountain and do not
join with him in imprecating the curse, for if thou shouldst,
thou wouldst return with the curse on thee." " What shall
we do then?" asked the other. " I believe," said the former,
" we had better give him the kharaj rather than join with
him in imprecating the curse." 4
A statement of the treaty. Al-Husain from Yahya ibn-
Adam who said : — " I copied the statement of the Prophet 65
to the people of Najran from that of a man who took it from
al-Hasan ibn-Salih. These are the words:
1 Yafcut, vol. iv, pp. 751-757-
• Kor., 3 : 51. * C/. Kor., 3 : 54.
4 mub&halah. Bukhari, vol. iii, pp. 167-168; abu-1-Faraj, Agh&ni, vol.
x, p. 144.
joo THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
1 In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful.
The following is what the Messenger of Allah, Muhammad,
wrote to Najran, at whose disposal * were all their fruits,
their gold, silver and domestic utensils, and their slaves, but
which he benevolently left for them, assessing on them two
thousand robes each having the value of one aukiyah, one
thousand to be delivered in Rajab of every year, and one
thousand in Safar of every year. Each robe shall be one
aukiyah; and whatever robes cost more or less than one
aukiyah, their overcost or deficiency shall be taken into con-
sideration; and whatever coats of mail, horses, camels or
goods they substitute for the robes shall be taken into con-
sideration. It is binding on Najran to provide board and
lodging for my messengers1 for one month or less, and
never to detain them for more than a month. It is also
binding on them to offer as loan thirty coats of mail, thirty
mares and thirty camels, in case of war in al-Yaman due to
their rebelling. Whatever perishes of the horses or camels,
lent to my messengers, is guaranteed by my messengers and
is returned by them. Najran and their followers • are en-
titled to the protection of Allah and to the security of
Muhammad the Prophet, the Messenger of Allah, which se-
curity shall involve their persons, religion, lands and posses-
sions, including those of them who are absent as well as those
who are present, their camels, messengers and images.4 The
state they previously held shall not be changed, nor shall
any of their religious services or images be changed. No
attempt shall be made to turn a bishop from his office as
a bishop, a monk from his office as a monk, nor the sexton
1 The text here is probably corrupt ; cf. Wellhausen, Skissen und
Vorarbeiten, vol. iv, pp. 25 and 132; Yusuf, p. 41.
* Sent to bring the kharaj.
• Ar. hdshiyoh— Jews. Sprenger, vol. iii, p. 502.
4 amthilah = crosses and pictures used in churches.
THE CAPITULATION OF NAJRAN IOi
of a church from his office, whether what is under the con-
trol of each is great or little. They shall not be held re-
sponsible for any wrong deed or blood shed in pre-Islamic m -;-
time. They shall neither be called to military service nor' •.;■'
compelled to pay the tithe. No army shall tread on their /
land. If some one demands of them some right, thenHhe
case is decided with equity without giving the people of
- « «
Najran the advantage over the other party, or Jfiying the
other party the advantage over them. But ^©soever of
them has up till now x received usury, I ariV. clear of the
responsibility of his protection.2 None df*,them, however,
shall be held responsible for the guilt of the other. And as
a guarantee to what is recorded in this document, they are
entitled to the right of protection from Allah, and to the
security of Muhammad the Prophet, until Allah's order is
issued, and so long as they give the right counsel [to Mos-
lems] and render whatever dues are bound on them, pro-
vided they are not asked to do anything unjust. Witnessed
by abu-Suf yan ibn-Harb, Ghailan ibn-'Amr, Malik ibn-'Auf 66
of banu-Nasr, al-Akra' ibn-Habis al-Hanzali and al-Mug-
hirah. Written by— '" 8
Yaha ibn-Adam adds, " I have seen in the hands of the
people of Najran another statement whose reading is similar
to that of this copy, but at the close of it the following
words occur : Written by 'Ali ibn-abu-Talib/ 4 Concern-
ing this I am at a loss to know what to say."
'Umar expels them. When abu-Bakr as-Siddik became
caliph he enforced the terms agreed upon and issued an-
other statement similar to that given by the Prophet When
1 Yalfubi, vol. ii, p. 62, has " after this year ".
1 Caetani, vol. ii, p. 352; Sprenger, vol. iii, p. 502; Athir, vol. ii, p. 223.
**Abdallah ibn-abi-Bakr ; abu-Yusuf, p. 4; see H. Lammens' com-
ment on this protocol, Milanges de la Faculti Orientate, vol. v2, p. 346.
* And not " abi " as required by the rules of the Arabic grammar.
• ■
-• a
1 02 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
'Umar ibn-al-Khattab became caliph, they began to practise
usury, and became so numerous as to be considered by him
a menace to Islam. He therefore expelled them and wrote
•y'to them the following statement:
*•.**" " Greetings! Whomever of the people of Syria and al-
'Itado.they happen to come across, let him clear for them
tillaMg-'land ; and whatever land they work, becomes theirs
in place/ttf their land in al-Yaman." Thus the people of
Najran wtycfe. dispersed, some settling in Syria and others
in an-Najr2ii3yati in the district of al-Kufah, after whom it
was so namedv'The Jews of Najran were included with
the Christians ih-'ftfe. terms and went with them as their
followers.
The Najranites under 'Uthman. When 'Uthman ibn-
'Affan became caliph, he wrote to his 'dtnil in al-Kufah, al-
Walid ibn-'Ukbah ibn-abi-Mu'ait, as follows :
" Greetings ! The civil ruler, the bishop and the nobles
of Najran have presented to me the written statement of
the Prophet and showed me the recommendation * of 'Umar.
Having made inquiry regarding their case from 'Uthman
ibn-Hunaif, I learned that he had investigated their state
and found it injurious to the great landlords1 whom
they prevented from possessing their land. I have, there-
fore, reduced their taxation by 200 robes — for the sake of
Allah and in place of their old lands. I recommend them
to thee as they are included among the people entitled to
our protection.' '
Another source for 'Ulnar's statement. I heard it said
by one of the learned that 'Umar wrote them the following
statement: — "Greetings! Whomsoever of the people of
Syria or al-'Irak they pass by, let him clear for them tillable
land ". Another I heard say, " waste land ".
1 Lamroens, MFO, vol. v2, p. 677.
*dihkans; Adam, pp. 42-43.
THE CAPITULATION OF NAJRAN iQ$
One reason for their expulsion. 'Abd-al-A'la ibn-Ham-
mad an-Narsi from 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-' Aziz : — The Pro-
phet said during his illness, " There shall not remain two
religions in the land of Arabia." Consequently, when
'Umar ibn-al-Khattab became caliph, he expelled the people
of Najran to an-Najraniyah and bought their properties and 67
possessions.
A1-' Abbas ibn-Hisham al-Kalbi from his grandfather : —
The Najran of al-Yaman received their name from Najran
ibn-Zaid ibn-Saba ibn-Yashjub ibn-Ya'rub ibn-Kahtan.
'Umar and 'Ali refuse to reinstate them in the land. Al-
Husain ibn-al-Aswad from Salim ibn-abi-1-Ja'd : — The peo-
ple of Najran having increased in number to 40,000, became
jealous of one another and came to 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab
saying, " Transplant us from the land ". 'Umar had con-
sidered them a menace to the Moslems, so he took this op-
portunity and expelled them from the land. Later, how-
ever, they repented, and returning to 'Umar said, " Rein-
state us in the land ", but 'Umar refused. When 'Ali ibn-
abi-Talib became caliph, they came to him and said, " We
plead with thee by thy right-hand writing and thy inter-
mediacy on our behalf with thy Prophet that thou mayst
reinstate us in the land." To this 'Ali replied : " 'Umar was
a man of sound judgment, and I hate to act differently." 1
The number of robes received by Mu'awiyah. Abu-
Mas'ud al-Kufi from al-Kalbi : — The chief of an-Najrani-
yah at al-Kufah used to send his messengers to all the people
of Najran who were in Syria and other districts and to
gather money assessed evenly on them for raising the required
robes. When Mu'awiyah (or Yazid ibn-Mu'awiyah) came
to power, they complained to him because of their dispersion,
the death of some of them, and the conversion to Islam of
1 Adam, p. 9.
104
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
others. They also presented the statement issued by
'Uthman ibn-'Affan for the reduction of the number of
robes. To this they added, "And now we have still more
decreased, and become weaker." He then reduced the num-
ber by another 200 robes, thus reducing the original number
by four hundred.
Al-Hajjaj restores the number. When al-Hajjaj ibn-
Yusuf was made governor of al-'Irak and ibn-al-Ash'ath
revolted against him, the former charged the non-Arab
landlords and the people of Najran with siding with the
latter, and, therefore, he raised the number to 1,800 robes,
and ordered that the robes be of the kind adorned with
figures.
'Umar ibnr' Abd-al- Az\s reduces the number. When
'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz came to power, they complained to
him that they were in danger of extinction, that they were
decreasing in number, that the continuous raids of the Arabs
overburdened them with heavy taxes for revictualling them,
and that they suffered from the unjust treatment of al-
Hajjaj. By 'Umar's orders their census was taken, and it
was found that they were reduced to one-tenth of their
original number, upon which 'Umar said, " I consider that
the terms of this capitulation impose a tax on their heads
and not on their lands. The poll-tax of the dead and the
Moslems, however, is annulled." He therefore held them
responsible for 200 robes of the value of 8,000 dirhams.
Yusuf ibn-'Umar restores the original tax. In the time
of al-Walid ibn-Yazid, when Yusuf ibn-'Umar was made 68
governor of al-'Irak, he [Yusuf], moved with partisanship
to al-Hajjaj, charged them the original tax.
Abu-l- Abbas reduces the number of robes. When abu-
1-' Abbas was proclaimed caliph, they met him on the way
as he appeared in al-Kufah and strewed myrtle branches on
the road and threw some on him as he was going home from
THE CAPITULATION OF NAJRAN
I05
the mosque. With this the caliph was greatly pleased.
Later they brought their case before him and told him of
their paucity in number and of their treatment by 'Umar
ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz and Yusuf ibn-'Umar. To this they
added, "We are somehow related to thy uncles (on the
mother's side), the banu-1-Harith ibn-Ka'b." 'Abdallah ibn-
ar-Rabi' al-Harithi spoke in their favor; and al-Hajjaj ibn-
Artat confirmed what they claimed. Therefore, abu-1-
' Abbas held them responsible only for the 200 robes pre-
viously given by them, having a value of 8,000 dirhams.
Ar-Rashid writes them a favorable statement. Abu-
Mas'ud said, " When ar-Rashid Harun became caliph and
started for al-Kufah on his way to the Pilgrimage, they
brought their case before him and complained of the harsh
treatment of the edmils. By the caliph's orders there was
written to them a statement fixing the number at 200 robes.
The statement I myself saw. Moreover the caliph ordered
that they be freed from dealing with the 'dtnils, and that
they pay the dues directly to the treasury."
'Amr an-Nakid from ibn-Shihab az-Zuhri : — The following
text was revealed against the unbelievers among the Kuraish
and the Arabs,1 " Fight therefore against them until there
is no more civil discord, and the only worship be that of
Allah," and the following against the "People of the Book."*
" Make war upon such of those to whom the Book has been
given as believe not in Allah, or in the last day, and who
forbid not that which Allah and his Messenger have for-
bidden, and who profess not the profession of the truth,"
etc to " humbled." Thus the first among the "People of the
Book" to pay poll-tax, so far as we know, were the people
of Najran who were Christian. Then, the people of Ailah,
Adhruh and Adhri'at paid it in the battle of Tabuk.
1 Kor., 2: i8p. ■ Kor., 9: 29.
CHAPTER XV
Al-Yaman
The people of al-Yaman embrace Islam. When the news
of the rise of the Prophet and the success of his righteous
cause reached the people of al-Yaman, they sent their envoys,
and the Prophet gave them a written statement confirming 69
them in the possession of whatever property, lands, and
buried treasures were included in their terms when they be-
came Moslems. Thus they accepted Islam ; and the Prophet
sent them his messengers and 'amils to acquaint them with
the laws of Islam and its institutes and to receive their
sadakah and the poll-tax of those among them who still held
to Christianity, Judaism or Magianism.
The Prophets letter. Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from al-
Hasan: — The Prophet wrote to the people of al-Yaman,
" Whosoever repeats our prayer, turns his face to the
kiblah as we do,1 and eat what we slaughter, such a one is a
Moslem and has the security of Allah and the security of his
Prophet. But whosoever refuses to do so, tax is binding
upon him."
A similar tradition was communicated to me by Hudbah
on the authority of al-Hasan.
The governor of Saria'. It is reported by al-Wakidi
that the Prophet sent Khalid ibn-Sa'id ibn-al-'Asi as a com-
mander over San'a' and its land. Al-Wakidi adds that
some say that the Prophet assigned al-Muhajir ibn-abi-
Umaiyah ibn-al-Mughirah-1-Makhzumi to be governor of
San'a, in which position he died. Still others say, according
1 Turning the face towards Makkah during prayer.
106
AL-YAMAN
107
to al-Wakidi, that the one who made al-Muhajir governor
over San'a' was abu-Bakr as-Siddik, who also assigned
Khalid ibn-Sa'id over the provinces of upper al-Yaman.
Al-Muhajir as governor of Kindah and as-Sadif. Ac-
cording to Hisham ibn-al-Kalbi and Haitham ibn-'Adi the
Prophet assigned al-Muhajir over Kindah and as-Sadif.
On the death of the Prophet, abu-Bakr wrote to Ziyad ibn-
Labid al-Bayadi-1-Ansari assigning to him the governorship
of Kindah, as-Sadif and other places in addition to what he
already ruled over in Hadramaut. Al-Muhajir he assigned
over San'a' and later asked him in writing to reinforce
Ziyad ibn-Labid, without dismissing him from the governor-
ship of San'a' .
Ziyad, governor of Hadramaut. It is agreed by all that
the Prophet assigned Ziyad ibn-Labid to Hadramaut.
The governors of Zabid, Rima', 'Adan, al-Janad and
Najran appointed. The Prophet assigned abu-Musa-1-
Ash'ari to Zabid, Rima', 'Adan and the coast region, and
assigned Mu'adh ibn-Jabal to al-Janad, made him kadi and
charged him with collecting sadakah in al-Yaman. He then
assigned to Najran 'Amr ibn-Hazm al-Ansari; and, accord-
ing to other reports, he assigned abu-Sufyan ibn-Harb to
Najran after 'Amr ibn-Hazm.
The letter of the Prophet to Zurfah sent with Mu'adh.
'Abdallah ibn-Salih al-Mukri' from 'Urwah ibn-az-Zubair :
• • •
— The Prophet wrote to Zur'ah ibn-dhi- Yazan as follows : 7°
" Greetings ! On the arrival of my messenger Mu'adh
ibn-Jabal and his companions, gather all your sadakah and
poll-tax and deliver them to him. Mu'adh is the chief of
my messengers, and one of the righteous among my im-
mediate companions. I have been informed by Malik
ibn-Murarah * ar-Rahawi that thou wert the first to desert
1 Hisham, p. 956, gives " Murrah " ; and Nawawi, p. 559, "Mararah
t»
I08 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Himyar and embrace Islam. Therefore, good times lie be-
fore thee. And I order you, all Himyar,1 not to exhibit
perfidy or deviation, for verily is the Prophet of Allah the
lord of both the rich and the poor among you. As for the
sadakah, it is not legal for Muhammad or any of his rela-
tives to take; it is rather zakat through which ye are
purified, and which goes to the poor among the Moslems
and the Believers. It was Malik that conveyed the infor-
mation and kept the secret. As for Mu'adh, he is one of
the righteous among my immediate companions and one of
their coreligionists. I, therefore, order you to treat him
well, for he is highly esteemed. And peace be unto you !" *
The Prophet orders Mu'adh to take the tithe. Al-Husain
ibn-al-Aswad from Musa ibn-Talhah: — The Prophet sent
Mu'adh ibn-Jabal * to collect the sadakah of al-Yaman or-
dering him to take on dates, wheat, barley and grapes
(perhaps he said raisins) one-tenth and one-half of a
tenth.
Instructions to €Amr ibn-Hazm. Al-Husain from
Muhammad ibn-Ishak : — The Prophet wrote the following
to ' Amr ibn-Hazm when he sent him to al-Yaman :
" In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful.
This is a declaration from Allah and his Prophet. All ye
that have believed! be faithful to your compacts:* this
is an ordinance from the Prophet Muhammad, the Mes-
senger of Allah, to 'Amr ibn-Hazm when he delegated him to
al-Yaman. He ordered him to fear Allah in whatever he
performs, and to take from the spoils the fifth that belongs
to Allah as well as what is prescribed as sadakah on the
property of the Believers which is one-tenth in case it is
1 Hisham, p. 957.
1 Cf. Tabari, vol. i, p. 1719.
* Bukhari, vol. iii, p. 156; Diyarbakri, vol. ii, p. 158.
* Kor., 5 : 1.
AL-YAMAN
109
watered by flowing water or rain, and one-half of a tenth
if it is watered by means of the bucket." 1
The Prophet's letter to the kings of Himyar. Al-IJusain
from Muhammad ibn-Ishak: — The following is what the
Prophet wrote to the kings of Himyar :
" In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful.
From the Prophet Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, to 71
al-Harith ibn-'Abd-Kulal, Nu'aim ibn-'Abd-Kulal, and
Sharh ibn-'Abd-Kulal, to an-Nu'man Kail dhi-Ru'ain,
Ma'afir and Hamdan. Greetings! Allah will guide you
by his own guidance, if ye act well, obey Allah and his
Prophet, observe the prayer, pay the zakat, give out of the
spoils the fifth that belongs to Allah, the share of his Pro-
phet, and the portion which belongs to him as chief exclusive
of his companions, and deliver what is prescribed by Allah
to the Believers in the form of sadakah on the property,
which is one-tenth, in case the land is watered by spring,
or rain water, and half of the tenth if watered by means of
the bucket" *
According to Hisham ibn-Muhammad al-Kalbi the letter
of the Prophet was addressed to 'Arib and al-Harith, the
sons of 'Abd-Kulal ibn-'Arib ibn-Liyashrah.*
The Prophets letter to Mu'adh. Yusuf ibn-Musa-1-
l£attan from al-Hakam: — The Prophet wrote to Mu'adh
ibn-Jabal, when the latter was in al-Yaman, stating that one-
tenth is to be assessed on what is watered by rain or flowing
water, and half of a tenth on what is watered by means
of the bucket and water-wheel; that on every adult one
dinar or its equivalent in clothes is to be assessed ; and that
no Jew is to be enticed to leave Judaism.4
1 C/. Tabari, vol. i, p. 1727.
• Cf. Tabari, vol. i, p. 1718.
1 Ibn-Duraid, al-Ishtikak, p. 308: " Yalyashrah "; see ZDMG, vol.
xx, P. *37-
4 Here is omitted the explanation of certain words in the tradition.
r 10 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
The instructions given to Mu'adh. Abu-'Ubaid from
Masruk :— The Prophet delegated Mu'adh to al-Yaman giv-
ing him orders to take a one-year-old cow out of every
thirty cows; one full-grown cow, of every forty; and one
dinar, or its equivalent in clothes, from every adult.
The Magians taxed. Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from al-
Hasan : — The Prophet collected poll-tax from the Magians
of Hajar and the Magians of al-Yaman, and assessed one
dinar or its equivalent in clothes on every adult or female
from the Magians of al-Yaman.
The people of al-Yaman taxed. 'Amr an-Nakid from 72
'Amr ibn-Shu'aib's grandfather: — The Prophet assessed
one dinar as tax on every adult among the people of
al-Yaman.
Shaiban ibn-abi-Shaibah-1-Ubulli from Yahya ibn-Saifi
or from ibn-' Abbas : — When the Prophet delegated Mu'adh
ibn-Jabal to al-Yaman he said, " When thou comest to any
of the ' People of the Book/ tell them, 'Allah made it
obligatory on you to pray five times per day and night'.
If they obey, tell them, 'Allah made it obligatory on you
to fast during the month of Ramadan of every year \ If
they obey, tell them, 'Allah made it obligatory on him of
you who can afford it to undertake a pilgrimage to Makkah '.
If they obey, tell them, 'Allah has made it obligatory on
you to offer sadakah on your possessions to be taken from
the rich among you and turned over to the poor among
you.' If they obey, then avoid their choice possessions
and beware of the imprecation of the oppressed, for between
his imprecation and Allah there is no veil or screen." *
Products subject to sadakah. Shaiban from al-Mughirah
ibn-'Abdallah : — Al-Haj jaj said, " Give sadakah on every
leguminous plant." Regarding this abu-Burdah ibn-abi-
1 Bukhari, vol. iii, p. 157.
AL-YAMAN llt
Musa said, " He is right ", which made Musa ibn-Talhah
say to abu-Burdah, " This man [al-Hajjaj ?] now claims
that his father was among the Prophet's Companions. The
Prophet sent Mu'adh ibn-Jabal to al-Yaman and gave him
instructions to collect sadakah on dates, wheat, barley and
raisins."
'Amr an-Nikid from Musa ibn-Talhah ibn-'Ubaidallah
• • •
who said : — " I have read the letter of Mu'adh ibn-Jabal
when the Prophet sent him to al-Yaman, and there oc-
curred in it the following statement, 'Take sadakah on
wheat, barley, dates and corn.' " 73
Why more tax on the Syrians. 'All ibn-'Abdallah al-
Madini from ibn-abi-Najih who said, " I once asked
Mujahid, 4 Why did 'Umar levy on the people of Syria
a heavier poll-tax than on the people of al-Yaman ?' and he
replied, ' Because they were people of means.' "
Nothing on al-awkas. Al-Husain ibn-'Ali ibn-al-Aswad
from Ta'us: — When Mu'adh arrived in al-Yaman, there
was brought before him a medial number of cows and a
medial amount * of honey, on which he said, " I have no
instructions to take anything on this."
The salt of Mdrib. Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from Abyafl
ibn-Hammal: — The latter asked the Prophet to give him
as fief the salt in Ma'rib ; but hearing someone say, " It is
like perennial water," * the Prophet refused to assign it.
A tradition to the same effect was communicated to me
by al-Kasim ibn-Sallam and others on the authority of
Abyad ibn-Hammal.
The Prophet gives a fief in Hadramaut. According to a
1 Ar. aw&&s= what is between one faridah and the next; as, for in-
stance when camels amount in number to five, one sheep or goat is to
be given for them ; and nothing is to be given for such as exceed that
number until they amount to ten ; thus what is between the five and ten
is termed wafys, pi. awkas.
' Having an unfailing and continuous output.
II2 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
tradition communicated to me by Ahmad ibn-Ibrahim ad-
Dauraki on the authority of 'Alkamah ibn-Wa'il al-
Hadrami's father, the Prophet gave out as fief to the latter
['Alkamah's father] a piece of land in Hadramaut.
Muhammad ibn-Yusuf severe on al-Yaman. 'Ali ibn-
Muhammad ibn-'Abdallah ibn-abi-Saif, a freedman of
Kuraish, from Maslamah ibn-Muharib: — When Muham-
mad ibn-Yusuf, the brother of al-Haj jaj ibn-Yusuf, was the
governor of al-Yaman, he misbehaved, oppressed the people
and took pieces of land from certain men without paying
their prices. Among the lands he thus wrested was al-
Harajah. Morever he levied on the people of al-Yaman
a khardj which he gave the form of an assessed rate of
land-tax. When 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz came to power,
he wrote to his 'amil instructing him to abolish that assessed
land-tax and take nothing more than the tithe saying,
" Though I may not get from al-Yaman more than a hand-
ful of katam,1 I would rather have that than the passing
of such a tax." However, when Yazid ibn-'Abd-al-Malik
came to power he reinstated it.
Sadakah on plants, grains and vegetables. Al-Husain
ibn-Muhammad az-Za'farani from abu-'Abd-ar- Rahman
Hisham ibn-Yusuf, the kad.i of San'a' : — The people of 74
Khuf ash presented a statement from abu-Bakr as-Siddik on
a parchment ordering them tp pay sadakah on a piece of
land planted with wars.9
According to Malik, ibn-abi-Dhi'b, all the canonists of
al-Hijaz, Sufyan ath-Thauri and abu-Yusuf there is no
zakat on wars, wasmah,* kirtf katam, hinna* and roses.
1 A plant product used' for dyeing the hair black.
* A certain plant like sesame existing in al-Yaman only, used for
dyeing.
* A plant with the leaves of which one tinges or dyes.
4 A kind of leek. * A plant used for dyeing the hands and feet
AL-YAMAN H3
Abu-Hanifah, however, holds that there is zakat on these,
whether in large or small quantities. Malik holds that the
zakat on saffron is five dirhams, if its price amounts to 200
dirhams and if it is sold. The same is the view of abu-az-
Zinad who is reported by others to have said, " Nothing on
saffron." According to abu-Hanifah and Zufar there is
zakat on it whether it is in large or small quantities. Abu-
Yusuf and Muhammad ibn-al-Hasan claim, " If its price
amounts to the lowest price for which five wasks of dates,
wheat, barley, corn or any other kind of grains sell, then
there is sadakah on it." According to ibn-abi-Laila, there is
nothing on vegetables. The same view is held by ash-Sha'bi.1
According to 'Ata' and Ibrahim an-Nakha'i, whatever the
tithe-land produces, be it in great or small quantities, is
subject to the tithe or half the tithe.
Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from ibn-abi-Raja' al-'Utaridi
who said : — " In al-Basrah, ibn-al-' Abbas used to collect our
sadakahs even from the bundles of leek."
Al-Husain from T&'us and 'Ikrimah: — The latter as-
serted that there is no zakat on wars and cotton.
The tax on the dhitnmis. The following is the view of
abu-Hanifah and Bishr : — In case of the dhitnmis who are
in possession of lands included in the tithe-land, like for
instance al-Yaman whose people accepted Islam and made
terms on their lands, al-Basrah which was cultivated by the
Moslems, and other lands given out as fiefs by the caliphs
to which no Moslem or " man of the covenant " has claim,
it is binding on these people to pay tax on their person
and kharaj on their lands according to what their lands can
bear. Whatever is received from them follows the course
of the money received as kharaj. If, however, any one of
them becomes Moslem, he is exempt from the poll-tax but
1 Yahya ibn-Adam, p. 107.
114
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
remains always subject to the kharaj on his land, as it is
the case in as-Sawad. The same view is held by ibn-abi-
Laila. According to ibn-Shubrumah and abu-Yusuf, tax is 75
levied on their heads, and they should pay double what the
Moslems pay on their lands, which would be a fifth or
a tenth. This they said on the analogy of the case of the
Christian banu-Taghlib. Abu-Yusuf added that whatever
is taken from them should follow the course of the money
received as kharaj. In case a dhimtni becomes Moslem
or his land goes to a Moslem, then it becomes tithe-land.
The same view is reported to have been held by 'Ata* and
al-Hasan.
According to ibn-abi-Dhi'b, ibn-abi-Sabrah, Sharik ibn-
'Abdallah an-Nakha'i, and ash-Shafi'i, there is tax on their
heads, but no kharaj or tithe on their land, because they are
not included in those on whom zakdt is binding, nor is their
land a khardj-land. The same opinion is held by al-Hasan
ibn-Salih ibn-Hai-1-Mamdani.
• • •
According to Sufyan ath-Thauri and Muhammad ibn-al-
Hasan, there is tithe on them but not in a doubled form,
because that which counts is the land, and the possessor is
not to be taken into consideration. According to al-Auza'i
and Sharik ibn-'Abdallah, if they are dhimmis like the
Jews of al-Yaman, whose people became Moslem while they
were still in the land, then nothing is taken but the poll-tax,
and you should not let the dhimtni buy the tithe-land or
possess it.
The case of a Jew who holds tithe-land. Al-Wakidi said,
" I once asked Malik about the case of a Jew from al-Hijaz
who buys land in al-Jurf and plants it. Malik said, ' The
tithe is taken from him \ I then replied, ' Didst thou not
claim that there is no tithe on the land of a dhimtni if he
acquires it from the tithe-land ?' ' That ', said Malik, ' holds
AL-YAMAN H5
true, if he stays in his own country ; but in case he leaves his
country, then that becomes a question of trade.' " *
A man of the banu-Taghlib who uses a tithe-land. Abu-
az-Zinad, Malik ibn-Anas, ibn-abi-Dhi'b, ath-Thauri, abu-
Hanifah and Ya'kub said regarding the case of one of the
banu-Taghlib who plants a piece of the tithe-land that he
should pay a double-tithe. If he rents a tithe-farm then —
according to Malik, ath-Thauri, ibn-abi-Dhi'b and Ya'kub —
the one who plants the farms should pay the tithe. Abu-
Hanifah, however, maintains that the owner of the land
should pay it ; and Zuf ar shares the same view.
The case of one who is behind in payment of the tithe.
According to abu-Hanifah, in case a man fails to pay the
tithe for two years, then the authorities [Ar. sultdn] take
only one tithe as he begins again to pay. The same is true
of the kharaj-land. But abu-Shimr holds that the authori-
ties take the arrears, because it is justly due to them.
1 Cf. abu-Yusuf , p. 69.
CHAPTER XVI
TJman
The Prophet sends abu-Zaid al-Ansari to 'Utnan. The al- 76
Azd were in ascendency in 'Uman,1 although it had in its
deserts * many other peoples. In the early part of the year
8, the Prophet delegated to them abu-Zaid al-Ansari of al-
Khazraj, who was one of those who compiled the Koran
in the time of the Prophet. His [full] name, according to
al-Kalbi, was Kais ibn-Sakan ibn-Zaid* ibn-Haram; ac-
cording to some Basrah philologists, his name was ' Arar ibn-
Akhtab, the grandfather of 'Urwah ibn-Thabit ibn-' Amr ibn-
Akhtab; and according to Sa'id ibn-Aus al-Ansari, it was
Thabit ibn-Zaid. The Prophet also sent 'Arar ibn-al-'Asi
as-Sahmi with a letter to 'Abd 4 and Jaif ar, the two sons of
al-Julanda, calling them to Islam.5 The Prophet said, "If
these people accept the witness of truth and pledge obedi-
ence to Allah and his Prophet, 'Amr will be the commander
and abu-Zaid will officiate in prayer, propagate Islam, and
teach the Koran and the institutes of the Prophet."
On the arrival of abu-Zaid and 'Amr at 'Uman, they
found that 'Abd and Jaif ar were at Suhar on the sea-coast
They carried the letter of the Prophet to them, and they
1 Ya^ut, vol. iii, p. 717.
* Ar. b&diyah ; see MFO, vol. iv, p. 98.
* Hisham, p. 504, gives " Kais ibn-Za'ura " for Zaid.
« Hisham, p. 071 : M 'Iyadh" ; adfa-Dhahabi, al-Mushtobiht p. 133 : " 'Ab-
bad " ; cf. Athir, vol. ii, p. 177.
* Ya'kubi, vol. ii, p. 85 ; Sprenger, vol. iii, p. 382.
116
'UMAN
117
both accepted Islam and invited the Arabs to it The Arabs
then responded and showed special interest in it. 'Amr
and abu-Zaid stayed in 'Uman until the death of the Pro-
phet It is said by some, however, that abu-Zaid returned
to al-Madinah before that.
Al-Azd and other tribes apostatize. Consequent upon the
death of the Prophet, al-Azd apostatized from Islam under
the leadership of Lakit ibn-Malik dhu-at-Taj and left for
Dabba * (some say for Damma in Dabba) , Abu-Bakr, there-
upon, dispatched against them Hudhaifah ibn-Mihsan al-
Makhzumi, who in a battle with Lakit and his companions
killed him and took from the people of Dabba many captives
whom they sent to abu-Bakr. At this, al-Azd returned to
Islam. Other clans from 'Uman, however, apostatized and yy
went as far as ash-Shihr. These 'Ikrimah followed and
overpowered, carrying away a large booty and killing many
of their number. Then some of the tribe of Mahrah ibn-
Jfaidan ibn-'Amr ibn al-Hafi ibn-Kud&'ah massed a body
of men, against whom 'Ikrimah came; but they offered no
resistance and paid sadakah.
Hudhaifah made governor. Abu-Bakr assigned Hu-
dhaifah ibn-Mihsan as governor over 'Uman. When abu-
Bakr died, Hudhaifah was still over it; but he was later
dismissed and sent to al-Yaman.
'Isa ibn-Ja'far abuses the people. The state of 'Um&n
continued in a fair way, its people paying sadakah on their
property, and poll-tax being taken from those among them
who were dhimmis until the caliphate of ar-Rashid who
made 'Isa ibn-Ja'far ibn-Sulaiman ibn-' AH ibn-'Abdallah
ibn-al-' Abbas its ruler. The latter left for 'Uman with some
troops from al-Basrah, who began to violate women, and rob
1 Tabari, vol. i, p. 1981 : * Daba ".
1 j8 the origins of the islamic state
the people, and make public use of musical instruments.1
The people of 'Uman, who were mostly Shurat,* having
learned that, fought against him and held him back from
entering the city. Finally, they succeeded in killing and
crucifying him. Then they broke with the caliph* and
refused to do him homage, making one of their own their
ruler.
Some assert that the Prophet sent abu-Zaid carrying his
letter to 'Abd and Jaifar, the two sons of al-Julanda of al-
Azd, in the year 6, and sent ' Amr in the year 8, a short time
after his conversion to Islam, which took place, together
with the conversion of Khalid ibn-al-Watid and 'Uthman
ibn-Talhah-l-'Abdi in Safar, year 8. 'Amr had come from
Abyssinia to the Prophet.4 The Prophet said to abu-Zaid,
" From the Moslems, take sadakah ; but from the Magians,
take poll-tax."
The letter of 'Umar ibn-' Abd-aL' Azus to 'Adi. Abu-1-
Hasan al-Mada'ini from al-Mubarak ibn-Fudalah: — The
following is what 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz wrote to 'Adi
ibn-Artat al-Fazari, his 'amil in al-Basrah :
" Greetings ! I have previously written to 'Amr ibn-
'Abdallah asking him to distribute whatever he received in
'Uman as date or grain tithes among the poor of its in-
habitants, the nomadic people who may descend on it and
those whom need, poverty, or obstruction of the way may
compel to stay in it. Regarding this, he wrote to me that
having asked thy representative who came before him to
'Uman about those articles of food and dates, he was told 78
1 Cf. Salil ibn-Rizik, History of Imdms and Seyyids of Oman, tr.
Badger, p. 11.
1 Schismatics commonly known as Khawarij. They say that they
owe their name to Koran, 2 : 203.
s The word used is sulfdn.
4 Hisham, pp. 716-717.
'UMAN
119
that thy representative had sold them and delivered the price
to thee. Return to 'Amr, therefore, what thy representative
in 'Uman had carried to thee as the price of dates and
grains, that 'Amr may invest it where I instructed him, and
spend it as I told him. May this be the will of Allah,
and peace be unto thee !"
CHAPTER XVII
Al-Bahrain
•
Al-Mundhir ibn-Sawa, governor of al-Bahrain. The
land of al-Bahrain formed a part of the Persian kingdom.
In its desert lived a great many Arabs from the tribes of
'Abd-al-Kais, Bakr ibn-Wa'il and Tamim. At the time of
the Prophet, the one who ruled the Arabs in it in the name
of the Persians was al-Mundhir ibn-Sawa * one of the sons
of 'Abdallah ibn-Zaid ibn-'Abdallah ibn-D&rim ibn-Malik
ibn-Uanzalah. This 'Abdallih ibn-Zaid was surnamed al-
Asbadhi after a village in Hajar called al-Asbadh. Others
claim that he was named after the al- Asbadhi people, who
were worshippers of horses in al-Bahrain.
Al-'Ati? delegated by the Prophet At the beginning of
the year 8, the Prophet delegated al-'Ala ibn-' Abdallah ibn-
'Imad al-Ha^rami, an ally of the banu-'Abd-Shams, to al-
Bahrain, giving its people the choice between following
Islam or paying tax. With him, the Prophet sent a letter
to al-Mundhir ibn-Sawa and Sibukht the satrap * of Hajar,*
giving them the choice between following Islam or paying
tax. They both were converted and, together with them,
all the Arabs living there and a few Persians. The rest
of the population, however, including Magians, Jews and
1 tJajar, vol. Hi, p. 943.
' marzub&n; Ibn-IJajar, vol. i, p. 213, in quoting al-Baladhuri gives
his name thus: "Usaikhit (Usaikhib)"; cf. Ibn-Sa'd in Wellhausen,
SkisMtn, vol. iv, p. 15; Yakut, vol. i, p. 508.
• Another name for Bahrain, hence the Greek : Gerrha ; Caetani,
vol. ii, p. 194.
120
AL-BA&RAIN I2i
Christians made terms with al-'Ala' and this is a copy of the
statement written between the two parties :
" In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful.
These are the terms agreed upon between al-'Ala' ibn-al-
Ha^rami and the people of al-Bahrain. It is agreed that
they will save us [the Moslems] the trouble of work, and
divide with us the dates; and whosoever of them fails to
keep this may the curse of Allah, the angels, and the world
altogether be upon him." As for the poll-tax, al-'Ala'
assessed one dinar on every adult. 79
The letter of the Prophet 'Abbas ibn-Hisham from
ibn-' Abbas : — This is what the Prophet wrote to the people
of al-Bahrain :
"Greetings ! If ye observe prayer, give zakat, remain loyal
to Allah and his Prophet, pay the tithe of the dates and half
the tithe of the grains, and do not bring up your children
as Magians, then ye will be treated according to the terms
agreed upon when ye became Moslem, with the exception
of the fire-temple that is to be delivered to Allah and his
Prophet If, however, ye refuse, then tax will be incumbent
on you."
The Magians and Jews prefer tax. The Magians and
Jews, however, refused Islam and preferred the payment
of poll-tax. Upon this, the hypocrites among the Arabs re-
marked, " The Prophet pretended that he would accept poll-
tax from none outside the ' People of the Book ', but, here
he is accepting it from the Magians of Hajar who are not
'People of the Book.' " On this occasion the text was
revealed — " O ye that have believed ! take heed to yourselves.
He who erreth shall not hurt you when ye have the guid-
ance." 1 According to certain reports, the Prophet sent
al-'Ala' at the time he sent his envoys to the kings in the
year 6.f
1 Kor., s : KM- f Ya'kubi, vol. ii, p. 84.
122 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
AW Ala' as a wall between them. Muhammad ibn-
_ •
Musaffa al-Himsi from al-'Ala' ibn-al-Hadrami who said:
" The Prophet sent me to al-Bahrain (or perhaps he said
' Hajar ') and I used to come as a wall between brothers
[i. e. try to create discord] some of whom have been con-
verted. From the Moslem among them, I would take the
tithe, and from the ' polytheist/ kharaj" x
The Prophets letter. Al-Kasim ibn-Sallam from 'Urwah
ibn-az-Zubair : — The Prophet wrote to the people of Hajar
as follows : — *
" In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful.
From Muhammad the Prophet to the people of Hajar : ye
are in peace. I praise Allah on your behalf! beside whom
there is no god. Then I admonish you by Allah and by
yourselves that ye do not go astray after having been guided,
nor be misled after having the right pointed out to you.
What ye have done has reached me, and now the offense of
the guilty shall not be charged to him among you who
behaves himself. When my commanders come to you obey
them, reinforce them and help them in carrying out Allah's 80
plan and his cause, for whosoever among you does the
good deed, his deed shall not be lost before Allah or before
me. Your delegation has come to me, and I did nothing for
them but what was pleasing to them; although if I were to
enforce all my right on you, I would expel you from Hajar.
Thus did I accept intercession for the absent among you,
and bestow favor on the present. Remember the grace of
Allah upon you."
The tax imposed on al-Bahrain. Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad
from Katadah : — In the time of the Prophet, no fight took
place in al-Bahrain, for some of the people accepted Islam.
1 Yakut, vol. i, p. 509; Qajar, vol. Hi, p. 943; Caetani, vol. iii, p. 202.
' Wellhausen, Skisien, vol. iv, pp. 15-16.
AL-BA&RAIN 1 23
and others made terms with al-'Ala', agreeing to give half
the grains and dates.
Al-Husain from az-Zuhri: — The Prophet took poll-tax
from the Magians of Hajar.
What the Prophet wrote to the Magians. Al-Husain
from al-Hasan ibn-Muhammad : — The Prophet wrote to the
Magians of Hajar, inviting them to Islam and providing that
if they are converted, they will have the rights we have,
and be under the obligations we are under; but those who
refuse Islam will have to pay the tax, and we will not eat
what they slaughter nor marry their women.
Al-Husain from Sa'id ibn-al-Musaiyib : l — The Prophet
exacted tax from the Magians of Hajar, 'Umar exacted it
from those of Persia, and Uthman from the Berbers.
A similar tradition was communicated by al-Husain on the
authority of az-Zuhri.
'Amr an-Nakid from Musa ibn-'Ukbah: — The Prophet
wrote to Mundhir ibn-Sawa as follows : —
" From Muhammad the Prophet to Mundhir ibn-Sawa :
— thou art at peace. I praise Allah in thy behalf, beside
whom there is no god. Thy letter I received, and its con-
tents I heard. Whosoever repeats our prayer, faces the 81
kiblah as we do [in prayer] and eats what we slaughter,
such one is a Moslem; but whosoever refuses will have to
pay tax."
'Abbas ibn-Hisham al-Kalbi from ibn-' Abbas: — The
Prophet having written to al-Mundhir ibn-Sawa, the latter
accepted Islam and called the people of Hajar to it, some
of whom accepted and others did not. As for the Arabs,
they became Moslems, but the Magians and Jews accepted
the tax and it was exacted from them.
Alr'AUit sends 80,000 dirhams. Shaiban ibn-Farrukh
from Humaid ibn-Hilal: — Al-'Ala' ibn-al-Ha<jlrami sent
1Duraid, p. 62: "Musaiyab".
1
124
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
from al-Bahrain to the Prophet a sum of money amounting
to 80,000 [dirhams], more than which sum the Prophet
never received either before or after. The Prophet gave a
part of it to his uncle al-' Abbas.
Hisham ibn-'Ammar from 'Abd-al-'Aziz ibn-'Ubaidallah :
— The Prophet communicated with those in Ha jar whom
Kisra had settled there as hostages [wadai'], but they re-
fused Islam and tax was laid on them, one dinar on every
man.
Aban ibn-Sa'id made governor and succeeded by abu-
Hurairah. The Prophet dismissed al-' Ala* and assigned to
al-Bahrain Aban ibn-Sa'id ibn-al-'Asi ibn-Umaiyah. Ac-
cording to other reports, al-'Ala' was assigned to one district
of al-Bahrain, a part of which was al-Katif, and Aban to
another in which lay al-Khatt. The former report, how-
ever, is the more authentic. On the death of the Prophet,
Aban left al-Bahrain and came to al-Madinah. The people
of al-Bahrain, thereupon, asked abu-Bakr to send al-'Ala'
back to them. This he did. Thus, according to this re-
port, al-'Ala' held the governorship of al-Bahrain until he
died in the year 20. Then 'Umar assigned to his place abu-
Hurairah ad-Dausi. Others say that 'Umar assigned abu-
Hurairah before the death of al-'Ala', who, thereupon, left
for Tauwaj in Persia, intending to settle in it. Later, how-
ever, he returned to al-Bahrain where he died. Abu-
Hurairah often repeated, "After we buried al-'Ala', we
wanted to lift a brick from the tomb. On lifting it we
found al-'Ala' missing from the coffin."
'Uthman ibn-abi-VAsi made governor. Abu-Mikhnaf
asserted that 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab wrote to al-'Ala' ibn-
al-Hadrami, his 'dmil in al-Bahrain, calling him back, and
assigned 'Uthman ibn-abi-l-'Asi ath-Thakafi to al-Bahrain
and 'Uman. On the arrival of al-'Ala' in al-Madinah, he
was assigned by 'Umar to the governorship of al-Basrah, in 82
AL-BAffRAlN I25
the place of 'Utbah ibn-Ghazwan. No sooner had he ar-
rived there, than he died. This took place in the year 14,
or the beginning of 15. Then 'Umar assigned Kudamah
ibn-Maz'un al-Jumahi for the collection of taxes from al-
Bahrain, and gave abu-Hurairah authority over the military
guard and charge of the conduct of prayer. Later he dis-
missed Kudamah, inflicted on him the legal punishment for
drinking wine,1 and gave abu-Hurairah authority over the
military guard and charged him with the conduct of prayer.
At last, he dismissed abu-Hurairah and confiscated a part
of his wealth. Then he assigned Uthman ibn-abi-l-'Asi
to al-Bahrain and 'Uman.
Abu-Hurairah made governor after Kudamah. Al-
'Umari* from al-Haitham: — Kudamah ibn-Maz'un had
charge of tax-collecting and the military guard, and abu-
Hurairah acted as leader of prayer and kadi. The latter
gave witness against Kudamah, and 'Umar assigned him
to al-Bahrain after Kudamah. Later 'Umar dismissed him,
confiscated a part of what he possessed and ordered him
to return. This he refused to do. 'Umar, thereupon, as-
signed 'Uthman ibn-abi-l-'Asi as governor, who still held
the office at the death of 'Umar. When 'Uthman was in
Persia, his substitute over 'Uman and al-Bahrain was his
brother, Mughirah ibn-abi-l-'Asi, others say 5afs ibn-abi-
I-*Asi.
'Umar confiscates abu-Hurairah 's wealth. Shaiban ibn-
Farriikh from abu-Hurairah who said : — " 'Umar made me
his '&mil over al-Bahrain. There I gathered 12,000 [dir-
hams] . On my return to 'Umar, he addressed me saying :
* O thou the enemy of Allah arid of the Moslems (he may
have said ' and of his Book '), thou hast stolen the money
of Allah V To this I replied, ' Neither am I the enemy of
1 Flogging with 80 stripes ; see Muwaffa, p. 357.
1 1. e., abu-'Uraar JJaf s ibn-'Umar ad-Duri.
I26 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Allah, nor of the Moslems, (he may have said ' nor of his
Book ' ) ; rather am I the enemy of him who has enmity
against them. The money, I have got from horses that
multiplied in number and from different shares that mounted
up/ 'Umar then took from me 12,000. In my morning
prayer I repeated, ' Lord forgive 'Umar/ After this, 'Uraar
used to take from the people of al-Bahrain and give them
back more than what he would take. At last 'Umar asked
me, ' Wouldst thou not act as 'amil, abu-Hurairah ?' and I
replied ' No/ to which he answered, 'And why not ? Better
men than thou were made 'amils, for instance Joseph,1
who said, " Set me over the granaries of the land." ' To
this I replied, * Joseph was a prophet and the son of a
prophet, whereas I am abu-Hurairah, son of Umaimah,
and I am afraid of three things and of two things that
thou mayest bring upon me/ 'And why/ said 'Umar, ' didst
thou not say five ?' ' I fear that thou dost whip my back,
defame my honor, and take my money ; and I hate to speak
without meekness and to rule without knowledge/ " 83
Al-Kasim ibn-Sallam and Rauh ibn-'Abd-al-Mu'min from
abu-Hurairah: — When abu-Hurairah returned from al-
Bahrain, 'Umar said to him, " O thou enemy of Allah and
enemy of his Book ; hast thou stolen the money of Allah ?"
"Neither am I", replied abu-Hurairah, "the enemy of Allah,
nor of his Book; rather am I the enemy of him who has
enmity against them. I did not steal the money of Allah/'
" How then," said 'Umar, " did 10,000 dirhams come to
thee?" "Through horses" said abu-Hurairah, "that re-
produced and stipends that came in successions and shares
that mounted up." 'Umar took the money from him. The
rest of the tradition is similar to what is reported by abu-
Hilal.2
1 Kor., 12 : 55.
■ One of the intermediate authorities of the preceding tradition whose
final authority is abu-Hurairah himself.
AL-BAHRAIN I2y
The apostasy of al-Hutam. On the death of al-Mundhir
ibn-Sawa, a little after the death of the Prophet, those in
al-Bahrain descended from Kais ibn-Tha'labah ibn-'Ukabah
apostatized under al-Hutam from Islam. This al-Hutam
was Shuraih ibn-Dubai'ah ibn-'Amr ibn-Marthad, one of
the sons of Kais ibn-Tha'labah. He was nicknamed Hutam
for saying,
" The night found her in the company of a strong driver who does not
drive gently [Ar. hufam] ". 1
Together with these there apostatized from Islam in al-
Bahrain all the Rabi'ah tribe with the exception of al-
Jarud, i. e. Bishr ibn-'Amr al-'Abdi f and those of his people
who followed him. For a leader, they chose a son of an-
Nu'man ibn-al-Mundhir, named al-Mundhir. Al-Hutam
followed the Rabi'ah and joined them with his men. Having
received this information, al-'Ala' ibn-al-Hadrami marched
at the head of the Moslems until he came to Juwatha, which
was the fortification of al-Bahrain. As Rabi'ah advanced
towards him, he set out towards them with his Arabs and
non-Arabs and led a heavy fight against them. Then the
Moslems took refuge in the fortification where they were
besieged by the enemy. It was in reference to this occasion
that 'Abdallah ibn-Hadhaf al-Kilibi said :
" Wilt thou carry this message o A
to abu-Bakr and all the youths of al-Madinah?
Hasten to the aid of some young men of your number,
who are invested as captives in Juwatha." *
At last al-'Ala' made a sally with the Moslems and fell
upon the Rabi'ah during the night. A fierce battle ensued
in which al-Hutam was killed.
1 Tabrizi, ffamteoh, vol. i, p. 173.
* Hisham, p. 944; Duraid, pp. 186 and 197.
• Tabari, vol. i, p. 1962.
I28 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
According to other authorities, al-Hutam came to the
Rabi'ah as they were in Juwatha, whose inhabitants had
all forsaken Islam, and had chosen for leader al-Mundhir
ibn-an-Nu'man. Al-Hutam took up his abode with them.
Al-'Ala' pressed the siege until he reduced Juwatha and dis-
persed the crowd, killing al-IJutam. Of the two reports,
however, the former is more authentic. Describing the
death of al-Hutam, Malik ibn-Tha'labah-l-'Abdi says :
" We left Shuraih with the blood covering him
like the fringe of a spotted Yamanite garment.
It was we that deprived unum-Ghadban of her son,
and broke our lance in IJabtar's eye.
It was we that left Misma' prostrate on the ground,
at the mercy of hyenas and eagles that will attack him."
Al-Mundhir ibn-an-Nu'man. It is reported that al-
Mundhir ibn-an-Nu'man was nicknamed al-Gharur, but
when the Moslems won the victory he said, " I am not al-
Gharur1 [the deceitful] but al-Maghrur [the deceited]."
This al-Mundhir went with the remnant of Rabi'ah as far as
al-Khatt, which al-'Ala' moved against and conquered, kill-
ing al-Mundhir and those in his company. According to
others, al-Mundhir escaped, entered al-Mushakkar and
let in the water around him, making it impossible to be
reached. Finally he made terms, agreeing to leave the city,
which he did. He then joined Musailimah with whom he
was killed. Some claim that al-Mundhir was killed in the
battle of Juwatha ; others that he surrendered and then fled
away but was pursued and put to death. Al-'Ala' having
written to abu-Bakr for reinforcement, the latter wrote to
Khalid ibn-al-Walid ordering him to hasten from al-
Yamamah to the reinforcement of al-'Ala\ Al-Hutam,
1 Hisham, p. 945; Tabari, vol. i, p. 1970; IJajar, vol. iii, p. 385; AtHr,
vol. ii. p. 281.
AL-BA&RAIN I2g
however, was killed x before the arrival of Khalid. So
Khalid with al-'Ala' laid siege to al-Khatt. Later, Khalid
received a letter from abu-Bakr ordering him to leave for
al-'Irak, to which he started from al- Bahrain, in the year 12.
Al-Wakidi says, "According to our companions, Khalid
came first to al-Madinah, whence he started for al-'Irak."
'Abdalldh ibn-Suhail suffers martyrdom. 'Abdallah ibn- 85
Suhail ibn-'Amr of the banu-'Amir ibn-Lu'ai, whose
surname was abu-Suhail and whose mother was Fakhitah
daughter of 'Amir ibn-Naufal ibn-'Abd-Manaf, suffered
martyrdom at Juwatha. This 'Abdallah was one of
those who came with the " infidels " to the battle
of Badr, but then he joined the Moslem side and em-
braced Islam. He took part with the Prophet in the
battle of Badr. On the receipt of the news of his
death, his father, Suhail ibn-'Amr, said, " I expect Allah's
remuneration for his loss." On a pilgrimage to Makkah
Suhail was met by abu-Bakr who consoled him, and Suhail
replied, "lam informed that the Prophet said, 'A martyr
can intercede for seventy of his relatives/ and it is my hope
that my son will begin with no one before me." When
'Abdallah suffered martyrdom, he was 38 years of age.
'Abdalldh ibn-'Abdallah suffers martyrdom. Another
martyr of the battle of Juwatha was 'Abdallah ibn-Abdall&h
ibn-Ubai. According to others than al-Wakidi, his martyr-
dom took place during the battle of al-Yamamah.
AW Ala9 reduces az-Zdrah, as-Sabun and Darin. Al-
Muka'bar al-Farisi,2 who was the friend of Kisra and was
once sent by him to annihilate the banu-Tamim for interfer-
ing with his camels (and whose full name was Fairuz ibn-
Jushaish8), fortified himself in az-Zarah. There, many
1 Aghani, vol. xiv, p. 48.
* Noldeke, Geschichte der Perser und Araber, pp. 259 seq.
' Perhaps Jushnas, see Skizsen, vol. vi, p. 33, note 2; Noldeke, Per-
set, p. no, note 3; Athir, vol. iit p. 256.
I3o THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Magians who had assembled in al-Katif 1 and had refused
to pay tax joined him. Al-'Ala' invested az-Zarah but failed
to reduce it in the caliphate of abu-Bakr. In the early part
of the caliphate of 'Umar, however, he reduced it In the
course of the caliphate of 'Umar, al-'Ala' conquered by
force as-Sabun * and Darin where there is [today] a spot
known as Khandak al-'Ala' [the trench of al-'Ala'].
According to Ma'mar ibn-al-Muthanna, al-'Ala' with
'Abd-al-Kais invaded, in the caliphate of 'Umar ibn-al-
Khattab, certain villages in as-Sabun and reduced them.
He then invaded the city of al-Ghabah and killed those in it
who were Persians. Thence he moved to az-Zarah in which
al-Muka'bar stayed, and besieged him. The satrap of az-
Zarah challenged him to a duel, and Bara' ibn-Malik ac-
cepted the challenge and killed him, taking spoils from
him which amounted to 40,000 [dirhams]. Under safe con-
duct, one of the people of az-Zarah came forth to point out
the drinking water, and showed al-'Ala' the spring that
issues from az-Zarah. This spring al-'Ala' filled up. The
people seeing that, came to terms, agreeing to offer him
one-third of the city and one-third of the gold and silver 86
in it, together with one-half of what they owned outside
the city. Then came al-Akhnas al-'Amiri to al-'Ala' and
said, " They have not made terms regarding their children
who are now in Darin." Karraz an-Nukri pointed out to
al-'Ala' the ford by which he could cross over to them.
Thus did al-'Ala' with a band of Moslems plunge into the
sea ; and the first thing the people of Darin knew of was the
exclamation, "Allah is great !" The people of Darin sallied
forth and attacked them from three sides, but the Moslems
killed their fighters and gained possession of the children
1 Yakut, vol. iv, p. 143.
• Yakut gives " as-Sabiir \
AL-BA&RAIN I3I
and captives. Seeing that, al-Muka'bar became Moslem.
On this occasion Karraz said :
" Al-'Ala* feared the basin of the sea as he plunged into it,
but I have of old crossed it over to the ' unbelievers ' of Darin."
Khalaf al-Bazzar and 'Affan from Muhammad ibn-Sirin :
— In the duel between Bara' ibn-Malik and the satrap of
az-Zarah, the former stabbed the latter above his spine,
and he fell dead. Then Bara' went down and cut off his
hands and took his bracelets, a furred coat he had on, and
a belt. This booty, being so large, TJmar took one-fifth
of it It was the first booty in Islam of which the fifth
was taken.
CHAPTER XVIII
Al-Yamamah
. The origin of the name. Al-Yamamah was first called
Jau but was later named after a woman, al-Yamamah,
daughter of Murr [from the tribe] of Jadi, who was cruci-
fied at its gate. Allah knows whether this is true.
The envoys to the Prophet When the Prophet wrote to
the kings of the world in the year 7 (or 6 as it is said),
he wrote to Haudhah ibn-'Ali-l-Hanafi and the people of al-
Yamamah summoning them to Islam. His letter to this effect
he forwarded with Salit ibn-Kais ibn-'Amr al-Ansari x (later
al-Khazraji). The people of al-Yamamah, thereupon, sent
to the Prophet their delegation, one of whom was Muj ja'ah 87
ibn-Murarah. To Muj ja'ah and in accordance with his re-
quest, the Prophet gave out as fief a piece of unutilized land.
Another delegate was ar-Raj jal a ibn-'Unfuwah who be-
came Moslem and read the " Surah of the Cow " and other
Surahs of the Koran. He, however, apostatized from Islam
after a time. Among the delegates was one, Musailimah, the
false Prophet,* Thumamah ibn-Kabir ibn-Habib,4 who said
to the Prophet, "If it be thy will, we will leave all author-
ity in thy hand and swear allegiance to thee, with the un-
derstanding that after thee, all will return to us [Musaili-
1 Cf. Hisham, p. 971.
* Rahhal, see ibn-Sa'd in Skizsen, vol. iv, p. 46.
* Bukhari, vol. iii, p. 167.
4 Ibn-Duraid, p. 209 ; Nawawi, p. 554 ; Hisham, p. 945.
132
AL-YAMAMAH !33
mah]." " No," said the Prophet, " by no means, and may
Allah smite thee!" Previous to this, Haudhah ibn-'Ali-l-
Hanafi had written to the Prophet asking that after the
Prophet, the authority might be delegated to himself, and
promising to become Moslem and come to the reinforce-
ment of the Prophet " No; nor anything else," answered
the Prophet, "and may Allah let me get rid of him!"
Before long Haudhah was dead.
Musailimah, the false Prophet. When the delegation of
the banu-Hanifah returned to al-Yamamah, Musailimah, the
false Prophet,1 asserted his claim as a prophet, and ar-
Rajjal ibn-'Unfuwah testified that the Prophet gave him
[Musailimah] a share in the authority with him.8 Banu-
Hanifah and others in al-Yamamah followed him. He then
wrote the following message to the Prophet and forwarded
it through 'Ubadah ibn-al-Harith of the banu-'Amir ibn-
Hanifah, whose surname was ibn-an-Nauwahah,* and who
was [later] killed in al-Kufah by 'Abdallah ibn-Mas'ud who
heard that he and his companions believed in the false claims
of Musailimah :
" From Musailimah, the Messenger of Allah, to Muham-
mad, the Messenger of Allah. Greetings ! To us half the
land belongs, and to Kuraish the other half, but Kuraish
do not act equitably; and peace be unto thee. Written by
'Amr ibn-al-Jarud al-Hanafi."
To this the Prophet replied :
" In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful.
From Muhammad, the Prophet, to Musailimah, the false
Prophet. Greetings ! ' For the earth is Allah's : to such
of his servants as he pleaseth doth he give it as a heritage' 4 ;
1 Ar. al-Kodhdhab, the impostor.
* Diyarbakri, vol. ii, p. 175.
• Nawawi, p. 374. 4 Kor., 7 : 125.
134
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
and peace be to those who follow the true guidance!
Written by Ubai ibn-Ka V *
Khalid ibn-al-Waltd goes against Musailimah. When, at 88
the death of the Prophet, abu-Bakr was proclaimed caliph
and, in a few months, destroyed those of the people of Najd
and its environs who apostatized from Islam, abu-Bakr
sent Khalid ibn-al-Walid ibn-al-Mughirah-1-Makhzumi to al-
Yamamah giving him orders to fight against Musailimah, the
false Prophet As Khalid came within sight of al-Yamamah,
he met a group of the ban u- Hani f ah among whom
was Mujja'ah ibn-Murarah ibn-Sulmi.3 He killed them
and spared Mujja'ah whom he carried off in chains. Khalid
put up his camp one mile from al-Yamamah. Banu-Hanif ah
came out to him, and among them were ar-Rajjal and
Muhakkim ibn-at-Tufail ibn-Subai', nicknamed the Mukak-
kim al-Yamamah. Khalid, seeing something glittering
among them, turned to his men and said, "Know ye Moslems
that Allah has spared you the trouble of your enemy. Do ye
not see how they have drawn the swords one against the
other? I suppose there is discord among them, and their
force will be used on themselves." Mujja'ah, fettered in
his chains, shouted, " No, these are Indian swords which
they, for fear of being broken, hold up to the sun in order
to render the blades flexible." They then met The first
to meet the Moslems was ar-Rajjal ibn-'Unfuwah, who was
immediately killed by Allah's help. Many of the distin-
guished men and " Koran-readers " among the Moslems fell
martyrs. The Moslems then returned and went back, but
Allah favored them with a victory and made the people of
al-Yamamah take to flight The Moslems pursued them,
1 Cf, Ya'kubi, vol. ii, p. 146; ibn-Sa'd in Skursen, vol. iv, pp. 13-14;
Athir, vol. ii, pp. 226-229; Sprenger, vol. iii, p. 306.
1 Cf. Ibn-Duraid, p. 23.
AL-YAMAMAH
135
inflicting horrible death on them. Muhakkim was hit by
an arrow shot by 'Abd-ar-Rahman ibn-abi-Bakr as-Siddik,
the brother of 'A'ishah through her father, and he fell dead.
The " infidels " took refuge in al-Hadikah which was since
that day called "5adikat al-Maut" x In al-Hadikah,
Musailimah was killed by Allah's help. Banu-'Amr ibn-
Lu'ai ibn-Ghalib said that he was killed by Khidash ibn-
Bashir ibn-al-Asamm of the banu-Ma'is ibn-'Amir ibn-Lu'ai :
• m '
but certain Ansar say that he was killed by 'Abdallah ibn-
Zaid ibn-Tha'labah of the banu-1-Harith ibn-al-Khazraj, who
was shown a vision of the call for prayer.3 Still others
assert that he was killed by abu-Dujanah Simak ibn-
Kharashah who later fell as martyr; and others, by 'Abd-
allah ibn-Zaid ibn-'Asim, a brother of Habib ibn-Zaid of the 89
banu-Mabdhul of the banu-an-Naj jar. This Habib had his
hands and feet once cut off by Musailimah. Wahshi ibn-
Harb al-Habashi, the murderer of Hamzah, claimed that he
was the one who killed Musailimah, and used to say, " I
killed the best of all people and the worst of all people."
Some believe that all those mentioned above took part in
killing Musailimah. Among those who claimed having
killed Musailimah, was Mu'awiyah ibn-abi-Sufyan and the
banu-Umaiyah credited him for it
Abu-Haf s ad-Dimashki quotes from one who was present
when 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan asked a man of the banu-
Hanifah who witnessed the battle of al-Yamamah as to who
was the one who killed Musailimah, to which the latter replied,
" He was killed by one whose description is as follows : — "
" By Allah ", exclaimed 'Abd-al-Malik, " thou hast decided
the question of his killing in favor of Mu'awiyah."
According to a report, when the false Prophet was seized
1 " The park of death."
1 Hishara, p. 308 ; ibn-Duraid, pp. 26&-260.
I36 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
by the throat, he shouted, " O banu-Hanifah, fight for your
relatives!" which he repeated until Allah brought about
his death.
'Abd-al- Wahid ibn-Ghiyath from Hisham ibn-'Urwah's
father: — The Arabs forsook the true faith, and abu-Bakr
sent Khalid ibn-al-Walid who met them and said, " By
Allah, I shall never cease until I come face to face with
Musailimah!" The Ansar objected saying, "This idea is
of your own and was not given out by abu-Bakr; take us
back to al-Madinah that we may give rest to our horses."
" I shall, by Allah, never cease," repeated Khalid," until
I come face to face with Musailimah !" Consequently, the
Ansar left him. They then said to themselves, " What is
this that we have done? If our friends win the victory,
we will be reviled ; and if they are defeated, we would be the
cause of their defeat." Thus they returned and joined
Khalid. The Moslems and the " polythesists " met, and
the former took to flight until they got to their place of
abode where as-Sa'ib ibn-al-'Auwam stood up and addressed
them saying, " Ye have reached, O people, your place of
abode ; and after his own place of abode, man has no place
to flee to !" * Finally, Allah caused the defeat of the
" polytheists," and Musailimah was killed. Their watch-
word on that occasion was " O people of the 'Surah of the
Cow ' ! "
I was told by one of the inhabitants of al-Yamamah that
some one, who was under the protection of the banu-
Hanifah, repeated the following verse when Muhakkim was
killed :
" If I escape from it, I escape from that which is a calamity; go
otherwise out of the same vessel I shall drink."
Mujja'ah makes terms. By this time, the Moslems were
1 An Arabic proverb.
AL-YAMAMAH
137
worn out by war and entirely exhausted. But Mujja'ah
said to Khalid, " Most of the people of al-Yamamah did not
go out to fight you, and what ye have killed is only the
small minority. In spite of that they have exhausted your
utmost effort as I see. Nevertheless I am ready to make
terms with you on their behalf." Accordingly, he made
terms with Khalid, agreeing to give one-half of the captives,
gold, silver, coats of mail and horses. Having trusted him,
Khalid sent him back to his men. As soon as he entered
al-Yamamah he ordered the boys, women and aged men of
al-Yamamah to put on their arms and hold the forts. As
Khalid and the Moslems looked toward them, they enter-
tained no doubt that they were fighters, and they said,
"Mujja'ah has told us the truth." Then Mujja'ah came
out to the Moslems1 camp and said, " The people refused
the terms which I made with you, and there are the forti-
fications of al-'Ird manned to their fullest capacity. But
I kept urging them until they agreed to make terms on one-
fourth of the captives and one-half of the gold, silver, coats
of mail and horses." Both parties agreed on these terms,
and Khalid accepted them and signed his name. Mujja'ah
then came with Khalid to al-Yamamah. Seeing those left
in it, Khalid turned to Mujja'ah and said, " Thou hast
cheated me, Mujja'ah." The people of al-Yamamah at last
accepted Islam, and the sadakah was taken from them.
Khalid reinforces al-'Ala'. Khalid received the message
of abu-Bakr directing him to reinforce al-'Ala* ibn-al-
Hadrami. Accordingly, he started for al-Bahrain and left
in his place over al-Yamamah Samurah ibn-'Amr al-'Anbari.
The conquest of al-Yamamah was effected in the year 12.
A description of Musailimah. I was told by abu-Rabah
al-Yamami, on the authority of certain sheikhs from al-
Yamamah, that Musailimah, the false Prophet, was short,
exceedingly pale, with a camois and flat nose. He was
I38 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
nicknamed abu-Thumamah, and according to others, abu-
Thumalah. His muezzin x was one, Hujair, who in calling
to prayer used to chant, " I testify that Musailimah claims
to be the Prophet of Allah/' Remarking on this, some one
said, "Hujair has expressed it eloquently," which phrase
has since become a proverb.
Those who fell martyrs in ctf-Yam&mah. Among those
who suffered martyrdom in al-Yamamah were abu-Hu-
dhaifah ibn-'Utbah ibn-Rabi'ah ibn-'Abd-Shams, whose first
name was Hushaim, and some say Mihsham ; 2 Salim, a
freedman of abu-Hudhaifah surnamed abu-Abdallah, and
who was a freedman* of Thubaitah daughter of Ya'ar* of 91
the Ansar (and others say Nubaithah who was a woman) ;
Khalid ibn-Asid ibn-abi-l-'ts ibn-Umaiyah; 'Abdallah, i. e.,
Al-Hakam ibn-Sa'id ibn-al-'Asi ibn-Umaiyah, who, accord-
ing to others, was killed in the battle of Mu'tah; Shuja'
ibn-Wahb al-Asadi, an ally of the banu-Umaiyah, whose sur-
name was abu- Wahb ; at-Tuf ail ibn-' Amr ad-Dausi of al- Azd ;
Yazid ibn-Rukaish al-Asadi, an ally of the banu-Umaiyah ;
Makhramah ibn-Shuraih al-Hadrami, an ally of the banu-
Umaiyah, as-Sa'ib ibn-al-'Auwam, a brother of az-Zubair
ibn-al-' Auwam ; al-Walid ibn-'Abd-Shams ibn-al-Mughirah-
1-Makhzumi; as-Sa'ib ibn-'Uthman ibn-Maz'un al-Jumahi;
and Zaid ibn-al-Khattab ibn-Nufail, a brother of 'Umar ibn-
al-Khattab, who, according to some, was killed by abu-
Maryam al-Hanafi whose proper name was Subaih ibn-
Muharrish. According to ibn-al-Kalbi, Zaid was killed by
Labid ibn-Burghuth al-'Ijli, who later came to 'Umar and
'Umar said to him, " Thou art the sacks " (his name, Labid,
1 The chanter who calls to prayer from the minaret
9 Hisham, p. 165.
■ Hisham, pp. 422 and 486.
4 Ibid., p. 322.
AL-YAMAMAH
139
meaning sacks). The surname of Zaid was abu-'Abd-ar-
Rahman, and he was the senior of 'Umar. According to
some, the proper name of abu-Maryam was Iyas ibn-Subaih,
and he was the first in the time of 'Umar to hold the
position of kadi in al-Basrah. He died in Sanbil which lies
in al-Ahwaz. Other martyrs were abu-Kais ibn-al-Harith
ihn-'Adi ibn-Sahm; 'Abdallah ibn-al-Harith ibn-Kais;
Salit ibn-'Amr, a brother of Suhail ibn-'Amr of the banu-
' Amr ibn-Lu'ai ; and Iyas ibn-al-Bukair al-Kinani. Among
the Ansar, the following suffered martyrdom : 'Abbad ibn-
al-Harith ibn-'Adi of the banu-Jahjaba of al-Aus; 'Abbad
ibn-Bishr ibn-Waksh al-Ashhali of al-Aus, surnamed abu-ar-
Rabi', and according to others, abu-Bishr; Malik ibn-Aus
ibn-'Atik al-Ashhali; abu-'Akil ibn-' Abdallah ibn-Tha'labah
ibn-Baihan al-Balawi, an ally of the banu-Jahjaba, and
whose proper name was 'Abd-al-'Uzza, but who was called
by the Prophet " ' Abd-ar-Rahman the enemy of the idols " ; 92
Surakah ibn-Ka'b ibn-'Abd-al-'Uzza an-Najjari of al-
Khazraj; 'Umarah ibn-Hazm ibn-Zaid ibn-Laudhan an-
Najjari (who is supposed by others to have died in the time
of Mu'awiyah) ; Habib ibn-'Amr ibn-Mihsan an-Najjari ;
Ma'n ibn-'Adi ibn-al-Jadd ibn-al-'Ajlan al-Balawi of the
Kuda'ah, and an ally of the Ansar \ Thabit ibn-Kais ibn-
Shammas ibn-abi-Zuhair the khatib of the Prophet and who
was of the banu-1-Harith ibn-al-Khazraj (whose surname was
abu-Muhammad, and who at that time was the commander
of the Ans&r) ; abu-Hannah ibn-Ghuzaiyah ibn-'Amr one
of the banu-Mazin ibn-an-Najjar; al-'Asi ibn-Tha'labah ad-
Dausi of al-Azd, an ally of the Ansar ; abu-Dujanah Simak
ibn-Aus ibn-Kharashah ibn-Laudhan as-Sa'idi of al-
Khazraj ; abu-Usaid Malik ibn-Rabi'ah as-Sa'idi (others say
he died in al-Madinah, year 60) ; 'Abdallah ibn-' Abdallah
ibn-Ubai ibn-Malik (whose first name was al-Hubab but
who was given by the Prophet his father's name. His
I40 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
father played the hypocrite in religion. He is the one called
ibn-Ubai ibn-Salul, Salul being the mother of Ubai and of
[the clan of] Khuza'ah, and he bears her name. His father
was Malik ibn-al-Harith of the banu-1-Khazraj (others say he
suffered martyrdom in the battle of Juwatha at al- Bah rain) ;
'Ukbah ibn-'Amir ibn-Nabi' of the banu-Salimah of al-
Khazraj ; and al-Harith ibn-Ka'b ibn-' Amr of the banu-an-
Najjar. The Prophet had sent Habib ibn-Zaid ibn-Asim of
the banu-Mabdhul ibn-'Amr ibn-Ghanm ibn-Mazin ibn-an-
Najjar, together with 'Abdallah ibn-Wahb al-Aslami to
Musailimah. Musailimah did not molest 'Abdallah, but cut
off the hands and feet of Habib. The mother of Habib was
Nusaibah, daughter of Ka'b. According to al-Wakidi, the
two men [sent by the Prophet] came from 'Uman in the
company of 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi. Musailimah drove them back.
'Amr and all those in his company escaped, with the excep-
tion of these two who were captured. In the battle of al-
Yamamah, Nusaibah took part in the fight and returned with
a number of wounds inflicted on her. She is the mother of
Habib and 'Abdallah, the sons of Zaid. She also took part in
the battle of Uhud, and was one of the two women who 93
" swore allegiance " in the day of al-'Akabah.1 Other
martyrs of the battle of al-Yamamah were 'A'idh ibn-Ma'is
az-Zuraki of al- Khazraj and Yazid ibn-Thabit al-Khazraji,
a brother of Zaid ibn-Thabit, the authority on " The Laws
of Heritage." *
Regarding the number of those that fell as martyrs in
al-Yamamah, there is no agreement. The minimum esti-
mate mentioned is 700, the maximum 1,700, while others
assert that they were 1,200.
1 Hisham, pp. 312 seq.
* IJajar, vol. ii, pp. 40 seq.; Ibn-Khallikan, Wafayat al-A'yan, vol. I
p. 372, note 2.
AL-YAMAMAH
141
Mujjaah is assigned al-Ghurah and other fiefs. Al-
Kasim ibn-Sallam from Hisham ibn-Isma'il : — There came
to the Prophet Mujja'ah-1-Yamami to whom the Prophet
gave a fief and wrote the following statement : " In the name
of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful. This statement
is written by Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, to
Mujja'ah ibn-Murarah ibn-Sulmi. I give thee as fief al-
Ghurah, Ghurabah,1 and al-Hubal. If any one objects, re-
fer him to me." (Al-Ghurah is the chief village of al-
Ghurabat and is close to Karat). After the death of the
Prophet, Mujja'ah came to abu-Bakr, who assigned him as
fief al-Khidrimah. Later he came to 'Umar, who assigned
to him ar-Raiya. After that he came to 'Uthman, who as-
signed to him another fief " the name of which," says al-
Harith,1 " I do not remember."
Furdt ibn-Haiyan gets a fief. Al-Kasim ibn-Sallam
from ' Adi ibn-Hatim : — The Prophet assigned to Furat ibn-
Haiyan al-'Ijli a piece of land in al-Yamamah.
The "park of death!9 Muhammad ibn-Thumal al-
Yamami from certain sheikhs: — The Hadikah was called
Hadikat al-Maut [the park of death] because of the great
number of people that were slain in it. In the time of al-
Ma'mun, Ishak ibn-abi-Khamisah, a freedman of Kais, built
in it a cathedral mosque. The Hadikah before that time
was known as Ubad.
According to Muhammad ibn-Thumal, the Kasr al- Ward *
was named after al-Ward ibn-as-Samin ibn-'Ubaid al-
Hanafi. According to another, the fortification was called
Mu'tik [i. e., emancipator] because of its strength, indicat- 94
1 Bakri, vol. ii, p. 703 : " 'Awanah ".
* Ibn-Murrah-l-^anaii, one of the intermediary reporters of this tra-
dition.
'Yakut, Marasid, under Ward.
142
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
ing thereby that he who takes refuge in it is safe from his
enemy.
Ar-Raiya spring. Ar-Raiya was a spring from which
the as-Sa'fukah, as well as al-Khuyaibah and al-Khidrimah,
got their drinking water, as-Sa'fukah * being a crown-land
thus called after one of the agents over it, whose name was
Sa'fuk.
1 Bakri, p. 607.
CHAPTER XIX
The Apostasy of the Arabs in the Caliphate of
ABU-BAKR AS-SlDDlK
• • •
Abu-Bakr threatens those who withhold fadakdh. When
abu-Bakr was proclaimed caliph, certain Arab tribes apos-
tatized from Islam and withheld the sadakah. Some of
them, however, said, " We shall observe prayer but not pay
zakat" In reference to that abu-Bakr said, " If they refuse
me a one-year sadakah,1 I shall surely fight against them."
According to other reports he said, " If they refuse me a
two-year sadakah."
'Abdallah ibn-Salih al-'Ijli from ash-Sha'bi : — 'Abdallah
ibn-Mas'ud said, "After the death of the Prophet we found
ourselves in a state in which we would have perished had not
Allah favored us with abu-Bakr. By the consensus of
opinion, we agreed not to fight on a female camel that
had entered on its second year or a male camel that had
entered on its third year, but appropriate for ourselves
the income of Kura 'Arabiyah* and worship Allah un-
til the right course is revealed unto us." Allah gave
orders to abu-Bakr to fight them. Then, by Allah, abu-
Bakr was not satisfied by anything but one of two: —
a humiliating plan or an evacuating war. As for the humi-
liating plan, it was that they acknowledge that those of their
number who were killed went to hell, and that our property
that fell into their hands should be returned to us ; and the
evacuating war was that they leave their homes.
1 Ar. '«££/, see an-Nasa'i, Sunan, vol. i, p. 335-
1 Yafcya ibn-Adam, p. 122 ; Bakri, p. 657.
M3
I44 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
The delegation of Buzakhah. Ibrahim ibn-Muhammad
from Tank ibn-Shihab: — A delegation from Buzakhah
came to abu-Bakr and he gave them their choice between 95
" the evacuating war " or " the humiliating peace ". To
this they replied, " ' The evacuating war ' we have known
what it is, what is then ' the humiliating peace 7 " " It is,"
said abu-Bakr, " that we deprive you of the coats of mail
and horses, and keep the booty we took from you ; and that
ye return the booty ye took from us, pay bloodwit for those
of us who were slain and consider those of you who were
slain to be in hell-fire."
Shuja' ibn-Mukhallad al-Fallas from 'A'ishah the "mother
of the Believers " : — The latter said, "After the death of the
Prophet, what befell my father x would have softened the
firm mountains if it had befallen them. Hypocrisy in al-
Madinah exalted itself, and the Arabs apostatized from their
faith. By Allah, not a point they disagreed upon, which my
father did not cause to disappear as something without
which Islam could do [ ?] ."
Abu-Bakr dispatches an army. Abu-Bakr set out to al-
Kassah 2 in the land which belongs to Muharib in order to
direct the armies marching against the apostates. He was
accompanied by the Moslems. Those who went against
the Moslems were Kharijah ibn-Hisn ibn-Hudhaifah ibn-
Badr al-Fazari d and Manzur ibn-Zabban ibn-Saiyar al-
Fazari of the banu-1-TJshara', who were joined with the
tribe of Ghatafan. The fight raged fiercely but the " poly-
theists " were put to flight, and abu-Bakr sent Talhah ibn-
'Ubaidallah at-Taimi in their pursuit. Talhah fell upon
them at the lower part of Thanaya 'Ausajah where he killed
1 Abu-Bakr.
a Tabari, vol. i, p. 1870 : " dhu-1-Kassah."
* Ibn-Sa'd, vol. Hi1, p. 37.
THE APOSTASY OF THE ARABS
145
only one of them, all the rest having fled away, and he could
not catch up with them. This made Kharijah ibn-Hisn
repeat, " Woe to the Arabs because of ibn-abi-Kuhafah [i.
e. abu-Bakr]."
While abu-Bakr was at al-Kassah, he set Khalid ibn-al-
Walid ibn-al-Mughirah al-Makhzumi in command over the
people,1 and sent over the Ansdr Thabit ibn-Kais ibn-
Shammas al- An sari, who was one of those that [later]
suffered martyrdom in the battle of al-Yamamah. Thabit,
however, was subordinate to Khalid. Abu-Bakr ordered
Khalid to direct his course towards Tulaihah ibn-Khuwailid
al-Asadi, who had claimed to be a prophet * and was then at
Buzakhah. This Buzakhah is a spring belonging to the
banu-Asad ibn-Khuzaimah. Khalid set out against him and
sent before him 'Ukkashah ibn-Mihsan al-Asadi, an ally of 96
the banu-'Abd-Shams, together with Thabit ibn-Akram al-
Balawi, an ally of the An$ar. Hibal ibn-Khuwailid a met
them and was slain by them. Having heard the news,
Tulaihah with his brother, Salamah, set out and, meeting
'Ukkashah and Thabit, slew them both. Regarding this
event Tulaihah sang :
" As I saw their faces I thought of my brother IJibal
and was sure that I was going to avenge his death.
It was on the evening of that day that I left ibn-Akram in his grave,
together with 'Ukkashah al-Ghanmi, by the battlefield."
The Moslems and their enemy at last met and a fierce
battle was fought. With Tulaihah in the fight was 'Uyainah
ibn-Hisn ibn-Hudhaifah ibn-Badr at the head of 700 men
of the banu-Fazarah. When 'Uyainah saw the swords of the
1 Ya'kubi, vol. ii, p. 145.
9 He imitated Muhammad by composing saf or rhyming prose, see
Tabari, vol. i, p. 1738; and Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien,
vol. ii, p. 4001.
* Hisham, p. 453.
I46 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Moslems butchering the " polytheists," he came to Tulaihah
asking, " Canst thou not see what the army of abu-1-Fasil l
is doing, and did not Gabriel bring thee any message?"
" Yes " said Tulaihah, " Gabriel came to me and said ' Thou
wilt have a grinding stone as he has, and a day that thou
wilt never forget !' " a " By Allah," cried 'Uyainah, " I be-
lieve that thou wilt have a day which thou wilt never forget
O banu-Fazarah, this is a false prophet" Saying this, he
left Tulaihah's army which was soon after defeated. The
Moslems were victorious. 'Uyainah ibn-Hisn was taken
captive and brought to al-Madinah. Abu-Bakr spared his
life and set him free. Tulaihah ibn-Khuwailid took to
flight and entered a tent of his, where he took a bath and
went out. Then he rode on his horse, intending to visit
the sacred places, and came to Makkah, then to al-Madinah
professing Islam. According to others, he came to Syria,
was taken hold of by those of the Moslems who were on a
campaign, and sent to abu-Bakr in al-Madinah, where he
became Moslem. Later, he distinguished himself in the
conquest of al-'Irak and Nihawand. One day, 'Umar said
to him, " Didst thou kill the faithful servant 'Ukkashah
ibn-Mihsan ?" And he replied, " I have been the means of
bringing about the welfare of 'Ukkashah ibn-Mihsan; and
he has been the means of bringing about * my misery. I
beg Allah's pardon upon me."
Da'ud ibn-Hibal al-Asadi told me on the authority of
certain sheikhs among his people that 'Umar ibn-al- 97
Khattab said to Tulaihah, " Thou didst lie before Allah
when thou didst claim that he revealed to thee the text,
' Allah has nothing to do with the dust on your faces and
1 KMlid's surname was abu-'Sulaiman, see Nawawi, p. 224; and ibn-
Kutaibah, Kitdb ol-Ma'orif, p. 90.
1 Tabari, vol. i, p. 1897 ; Athir, vol. ii, p. 264.
• Cf. Tabari, vol. i, p. 1898.
THE APOSTASY OF THE ARABS
147
the ugliness of your hinder parts. When ye therefore
mention Allah, be abstemious and stand upright, for, verily,
froth is on the surface of what is pure/ " x " ' Commander
of the Believers ' ", replied Tulaihah, " this is one of the
corruptions of unbelief which has altogether been destroyed
by Islam. I am not, therefore, to be scolded for holding a
part of it" 'Umar remained silent.
Khalid in Rammdn and Abanain. Kh&lid ibn-al-Walid
came to Ramman a and Abanain * where the remnant of the
army of Buzakhah stood. They refrained from fighting
against him and swore allegiance before him to abu-Bakr.
Banu-'Amir ibn-Sa'sa'ah embrace Islam. Khalid ibn-al-
Walid sent Hisham ibn-al-'Asi ibn-Wa'il as-Sahmi, a brother
of 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi, one of the early Moslems and one of the
Emigrants to Abyssinia, to the banu-'Amir ibn Sa'sa'ah.
Banu-'Amir did not resist him and professed Isl4m and
practised the call to prayer. So he left them.
Kurrah' s life spared. Kurrah ibn-Hubairah-1-Kushairi,
having refused to pay sadakah and reinforced Tulaihah,
was taken by Hisham ibn-al-'Asi to Khalid. The latter
carried him to abu-Bakr to whom Kurrah said, " By Allah
I never forsook my faith since I became a believer. As
'Amr ibn-al-'Asi on his way back from 'Uman passed
by me, I treated him hospitably and was loyal to him."
'Amr was questioned by abu-Bakr regarding that, and he
corroborated the statement. Consequently, abu-Bakr spared
Kurrah's life.
Others assert that Khalid advanced to the land of the
banu-'Amir, took Kurrah captive and sent him to abu-Bakr.
The battle of al-Ghamr. Then Khalid ibn-al-Walid ad-
1 Frcytag, Prov., vol. i, p. 174, no. 80, and p. 731, no. 63.
1 Yakut, vol. ii, p. 815; Bakri, p. 412.
1 or Abanan ; Yakut, vol. i, p. 75 ; Bakri, p. 63.
I48 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
vanced to al-Ghamr1 where a band of the banu-Asad,
Ghatafan and others had gathered under the leadership of
Kharijah ibn-Hisn ibn-Hudhaifah. According to others,
they had on different days different leaders, and each party
had its own leader drawn from its own ranks. They fought
against Khalid and the Moslems, with the result that some
of them were killed and the others took to flight. With re-
ference to the battle of al-Ghamr says al-IIutai'ah-l-'Absi :
" Yea, may all short and humble lances be sacrificed,
in favor of the horsemen's lances at al-Ghamr ! " *
Khalid meets abu-Shajarah. Thence Khalid moved to
Jau Kurakir.* Others say he moved to an-Nukrah. There
a crowd was gathered by the banu-Sulaim and put under the 98
leadership of abu-Shajarah 'Amr ibn-'Abd-al-'Uzza as-
Sulami whose mother was al-Khansa'. They fought against
Khalid, and one of the Moslems fell a martyr. By Allah's
help at last, the " polytheists' " troops were dispersed, and
Khalid had on that day the apostates burned. When abu-
Bakr was told about it, he said, " I shall not sheathe a sword
that Allah had unsheathed against the ' unbelievers/ " Abu-
Shajarah accepted Islam, and coming to 'Umar found him
distributing alms among the poor, so he begged for some.
'Umar asked him, "Art thou not the one who said :
' I quenched my lance's thirst on Khalid' s troops,
and I hope after this that my life will be prolonged '?*
Saying this, he lashed him with the whip.4 " Islam, 0
' Commander of the Believers/ " replied abu-Shajarah, " has
blotted all this out."
1 Skizzen, vol, vi, p. 11, note 1.
1 Bakri, p. 696, and p. 718, line 12.
• C/. Yakut, vol. ii, p. 161, lines 12-13.
4 Tabari, vol. i, p. 1907.
THE APOSTASY OF THE ARABS 14g
AUFujffah put to death by Are. There came to abu-Bakr
one, al-Fuja'ah, whose proper name was Bujair ibn-Iyas
ibn-'Abdallah as-Sulami, and said to him, " Give me horse
and arms that I may fight against the apostates." Abu-
Bakr gave him horse and arms. Al-Fuj&'ah began to molest
the people, killing both Moslems and apostates. He, more-
over, gathered a large body of men. Abu-Bakr wrote to
Turaifah ibn-Hajizah, a brother of Ma'n ibn-Hajizah,
ordering him to go against him. This, ibn-Hajizah did
and captured him. He then sent him to abu-Bakr, who or-
dered him burned in the neighborhood of al-Musalla [place
of prayer] . Others say that abu-Bakr wrote to Ma'n con-
cerning al-Fuja'ah, and Ma'n directed against him his
brother, Turaifah, who captured him.
Khalid in al-Butah and al-Ba'udah. Later, Khalid set
out against those of the banu-Tamim who were in al-Butah *
and al-Ba'udah. They fought against him, but he dis-
persed them3 killing Malik ibn-Nuwairah, a brother of
Mutammam ibn-Nuwairah. This Malik was the Prophet's
'amil for the sadakahs of the banu-Hanzalah. When the
Prophet died Malik held whatever was in his keeping and
said to banu-Hanzalah, " Keep your own money."
Malik beheaded. According to other reports, Khalid
met nobody in either al-Butah or al-Ba'udah, but he sent
detachments among the banu-Tamim, one of which was under
Dirar ibn-al-Azwar al-Asadi. Dirar met Malik and, as a
result of the conflict which ensued, Dirar took Malik and
some others captive, and brought them before Khalid.
In accordance with Khalid's orders, their heads were cut off,*
Dirar with his own hand cutting off that of Malik. Ac-
1 Yafcut, vol. i, p. 661.
1 Tabari, vol. i, p. 1924.
* Cf. JJajar, vol. iii, p. 722; abu-1-Fida, al-Mukhtasar, vol. i, p. 1581
(Cairo, 1325).
iS0
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
cording to certain reports, Malik said to Khalid, " By
Allah, I did not apostatize!" And abu-Katadah-1-Ansari
gave witness that the banu-Hanzalah had laid down their
arms and made the public call to prayer. Hearing this, 'Umar 99
ibn-al-Khattab said to abu-Bakr, " Thou hast sent a man
who kills Moslems and tortures by fire !"
It is reported that Mutammam ibn-Nuwairah once came
to 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab who asked him, " How far did thy
sorrow over they brother, Malik, carry thee?" "I wept
over him for one year," said Mutammam, " until my sound
eye envied the one that had gone; and never did I see fire
without feeling as if my grief was strong enough to kill
me, because he always left his fire burning till the morning,
lest a guest should come and fail to locate his place."
'Umar then asked for a description of him, and Muttamam
said, " He used to ride a restive steed and lead a slow-paced
camel, while he would be between two water bags exuding
water in the chilly night, wrapped up in a loose garment,
and armed with a long lance. Thus would he go through
the night until the morn. His face was a fragment of a
moon." * " Sing me," said 'Umar, " some of what thou
hast composed regarding him." And Mutammam repeated
the elegy in which he said :
" For a long time we were boon companions like the two fellow-drink-
ers of Jadhimah,
that people said, ' They will never be separated 1' " 2
" If I could write good poetry " remarked 'Umar, " I would
have written an elegy on my brother, Zaid." " It is not a
parallel case, ' Commander of the Believers ' ", answered
Mutammam, " had my brother met the same death that thy
brother has met, I would not have mourned over him."
1 Cf. De Slane, Ibn-Khallikan, vol. iii, pp. 651-652.
1 Aghani, vol. xiv, pp. 70-71.
THE APOSTASY OF THE ARABS 151
" Nobody did ever console me," said 'Umar, " as well as
thou didst." *
Sajah the Prophetess. Umm-Sadir Sajah, daughter of
Aus ibn-Hikk ibn-Usamah ibn-al-Ghaniz ibn-Yarbu' ibn-
• • •
Hanzalah ibn-Malik ibn-Zaid Manat ibn-Tamim (others
say she was Sajah, daughter of al-Harith ibn-'Ukfan ibn-
Suwaid ibn-Khalid ibn-Usamah), claimed to be a prophetess
and a soothsayer.2 She was followed by some of the banu-
Tamim and some of her uncles on her mother's side of the
banu-Taghlib. One day she composed the following rhyming
sentences : " The Lord of heavens orders you to carry out
against ar-Ribab * invasions." She invaded them but was
defeated by them, they being the only ones who fought
against her.4 She then came to Musailimah-1-Kadhdhab
[the false Prophet] at Hajar and married him,5 making her
religion one with his. When he was killed, she returned 100
to her brethren and there she died. According to ibn-al-
Kalbi, however, Sajah accepted Islim and emigrated to
al-Basrah and remained a good Moslem. 'Abd-al-A'la ibn-
Hammad an-Narsi heard it said by certain sheikhs of al-
Basrah that Samurah ibn-Jundab al-Fazari led her funeral
service as he was the governor of al-Basrah under
Mu'awiyah before the arrival of 'Abdallah ibn-Ziy&d from
Khurasan to assume the office of governor of al-Basrah.
Ibn-al-Kalbi added that the muezzin of Sajah was al-
Janabah6 ibn-Tarik ibn-'Amr ibn-Haut ar-Riyahi, and
others say 7 it was Shabath ibn-Rib'i ar-Riyahi.
1 Ibn-Kutaibah, Kitdb ash~Sh?r, pp. 193-194.
1 Ar. kdhin; see Skizzen, vol. iii, p. 130; Goldziher, Abhartdlungen
tur Arabischen Philologie, vol. i, pp. 107-108; Zaidan, vol. iii, pp. 16-18;
). G. Frazer, Golden Bough, vol. i, p. 230.
1 The confederate tribes of Tai, 'Adi and 'Ukl.
4 Skizzen, vol. vi, p. 14.
* Agh&ni, vol. xii, p. 157; abu-1-Fida, vol. i, p. 157 (Cairo, 1325).
1 Dhahabi, Mushtabih, p. 141. 7 Duraid, p. 137.
152
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
The insurrection of Khauldn. Khaulan in al-Yaman hav-
ing apostatized, 'Umar sent against them Ya'la ibn-Munyah
(Munyah, his mother, was of the banu-Mazin ibn-Mansur
ibn-'Ikrimah ibn-Khasafah ibn-Kais ibn-'Ailan ibn-Mudar,
and his father was Umaiyah ibn-abi-'Ubaidah, one of the sons
of Malik ibn-Hanzalah ibn-Malik, an ally of thebanu-Naufal
ibn-'Abd-Manaf ) who won a great victory over them and
carried away booty and captives. According to others,
however, he met no resistance, and all of them returned to
Islam.
CHAPTER XX
The Apostasy of the banu-Wali'ah and al-Ash'ath
ibn-Ma'dikarib ibn-Mu'awiyah-l-Kindi
The cause of the insurrection of Kind ah. The Prophet
sent Ziyad ibn-Labid al-Bayadi of the Ansar as governor to
Hadramaut; later extending his power over the Kindah.
According to others, it was abu-Bakr as-Siddik who ex-
tended his power over the Kindah. This Ziyad ibn-Labid
was a resolute and sturdy man, and took young she-camels
as sadakah from a certain man of the banu-Kindah. The
Kindah man asked him to return them and take something
else, but having marked them with the sadakah brand, Labid
refused his request. Labid was approached by al-Ash'ath
ibn-Kais, but still he refused saying, " Never will I return a
thing that has been branded with the mark." This caused
an uprising of all Kindah against him with the exception of
as-Sakun who still adhered to his side. Hence the verse of
their poet :
"It was we that came to the rescue of the faith, IOI
when our people miserably went astray and we supported ibn-umm-
Ziyid.
From the right claim of al-Bayadi we sought not to deviate,
and the piety of Allah was our best provision."
Banu-Amr gathered against Labid. Against Labid
were assembled the banu-'Amr ibn-Mu'awiyah ibn-al-Harith
al-Kindi. Labid, at the head of the Moslems, attacked them
during the night time and killed many, among whom were
Mikhwas, Mishrah, Jamad and Ab<Ja'ah the sons of Ma'di-
karib ibn-Wali'ah ibn-Shurahbil ibn-Mu'awiyah ibn-Hujr
153
*54
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
al-Karid (Karid in their dialect means horse) ibn-al-
Harith al-Walladah ibn-'Amr ibn-Mu'awiyah ibn-al-Harith.
These four brothers were in possession of so many valleys
that they were called the " four kings." Previous to this,
they had presented themselves before the Prophet, but later
on they apostatized. Their sister, al-'Amarradah, was killed
by one who mistook her for a man.
Ziyad lights against al-Ash'ath. As Ziyad returned with
captives and booty, he passed by al-Ash'ath ibn-Kais and
his people. Seeing him, the women and children began to
cry * which made al-Ash'ath burn with indignation, and set
out with a band of his men.2 He fell upon Ziyad and his
companions, and many Moslems were lost. The Moslems
were then defeated, and all the great men of Kindah rallied
to the support of al-Ash'ath ibn-Kais. Seeing this, Ziyad
wrote to abu-Bakr asking for reinforcement. Abu-Bakr
wrote to al-Muhajir ibn-abi-Umaiyah, ordering him to rein-
force Ziyad. Ziyad and al-Muhajir, at the head of the Mos-
lems, met al-Ash'ath and dispelled his men, and attacking
his companions, made a fearful slaughter among them.
Thence al-Ash'ath's men took refuge in a fortification of
theirs, an-Nujair, where the Moslems besieged them. The
siege was pressed until they were exhausted and al-Ash'ath
sought safety for a certain number of his men. He did not
include himself in that number because al-Jif shish * al-Kindi,
whose name was Ma'dan ibn-al-Aswad ibn-Ma'dikarib,
holding him by the waist, said, " Include me in that num-
ber." 4 Thus al-Ash'ath excluded himself in favor of al-
Jifshish. Al-Ash'ath presented himself before Ziyad ibn-
1 Tabari, vol. i, p. 2005.
1 Ya'taibi, vol. ii, p. 149.
1 Jaf shish in Fairuzabadi, nl-Kam&s, vol. ii, p. 276.
4 Cf. Tabari, vol. i, p. 2009.
THE APOSTASY OF THE BANU-WALrAH I55
Labid and al-Muhajir who sent him to abu-Bakr. The
latter favored him by giving to him in marriage his sister
umm-Farwah,1 daughter of abu-Kuhafah, who later gave
birth to Muhammad, Ishak, Kuraibah, Hubabah and 102
Ja'dah. According to others, abu-Bakr gave him in mar-
riage his sister Kuraibah ; and when he married her, he came
to the market, and every slaughtered camel he saw, he cut
its two heel-tendons, paid its price and gave it to the people
to eat. After living in al-Madinah, he set out on a razzia to
Syria and al-'Irak. His death took place at al-Kuf ah where
his funeral service was conducted by al-Hasan ibn-'Ali ibn-
abi-Talib, after the latter had been reconciled with
Mu'awiyah. This al-Ash'ath was surnamed abu-Muham-
mad and nicknamed " TJrf an-Nar " [the fire-crest] .
The insurrection of the banu-Wali'ah and al-Ash'ath. Ac-
cording to other reports, the banu-Wali'ah apostatized before
the Prophet's death. When Ziyad ibn-Labid heard of his
death, he called the people to swear allegiance to abu-Bakr,
which they all did with the exception of the banu-Wali'ah.
Ziyad fell upon them in the night time and killed them.
Al-Ash'ath apostatized and fortified himself in an-Nujair
where he was besieged by Ziyad ibn-Labid and al-Muhajir
who joined hands against him. Abu-Bakr sent 'Ikrimah
ibn-abi-Jahl, after his departure from 'Uman, to reinforce
them; but on his arrival, an-Nujair was already reduced.
Abu-Bakr requested the Moslems to share the booty with
him, which they did.
Ath-Thabja' and Hind severely punished. It is reported
that certain women at an-Nujair having rejoiced at the
death of the Prophet, abu-Bakr wrote ordering that their
hands and feet be cut off. Among these women were ath-
Thabja* al-Hadramiyah, and Hind, daughter of Yamin,
the Jewess.
1 C/. Tabari, vol. i, p. 2012.
I56 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
The Prophet assigns governors to San'd', Kind ah, Hadrar
tnaut and as-Sadif. Bakr ibn-al-Haitham from certain
sheikhs of al-Yaman: — The Prophet made Khalid ibn-
Sacid ibn-al-'Asi governor of San'a', but he was driven out
of it by al-'Ansi, the false Prophet. Over the Kindah, he as-
signed al-Muhajir ibn-abi-Umaiyah ; over Ha<Jramaut and
as-Sadif, Ziyad ibn-Labid al-Ansari. As-Sadif were the
descendants of Malik ibn-Muratti* ibn-Mu'awiyah ibn-
Kindah.1 They were called Sadif because Muratti* married
a woman from Ha<Jramaut and made it a condition that she
would take up her abode with him, and in case she bore a
child he would not force her to remain away from her
people's home. She did bear a child, Malik, and the judge
decided that Murratti' should send her back to her people.
When Malik left him with her, Murratti* said, " Malik
turned away [Ar.-sadafa] from me." Hence the name as-
Sadif.
•
The insurrection of the banu-'Amr. ' Abd-ar-Razzak said
that he was told by certain sheikhs from al-Yaman that 103
abu-Bakr wrote to Ziyad ibn-Labid and to al-Muhajir ibn-
abi-Umaiyah-1-Makhzumi who was then over Kindah, order-
ing them to come together and work hand in hand and
with one accord in order to secure for him the caliphate
and fight against him who refrains from paying sadakah,
and that they should get the help of the Believers against
the Unbelievers and of the obedient against the disobedient
and transgressors. Once they took as sadakah from a
Kindah man a youthful she-camel. He asked them to
change it for another. Al-Muhajir allowed it, but Ziyad
insisted on keeping the camel saying, " Never will I return
it after being stamped with the sadakah brand." Therefore,
the banu-cAmr ibn-Mu'awiyah gathered a large body of men.
1 Khallikan, vol. iv, pp. 595-596.
THE APOSTASY OF THE BANU-WALrAH
157
Then said Ziyad ibn-Labid to al-Muhajir, " Thou dost see
this crowd. It is not wise to have us all leave our position.
Separate, therefore, thyself with a band of men from the
main army, and that will keep our plans concealed. Then
I will attack these ' unbelievers ' in their homes at night."
Ziyad was resolute and sturdy. He went against the banu-
'Amr and, under the cover of the night, fell upon them and
some of them began to kill the others. At last Ziyad and
al-Muhajir met accompanied by the captives and prisoners.
They were intercepted by al-Ash'ath ibn-Kais and the lead-
ing men of Kindah, who fought a fierce battle against them.
At last the Kindis fortified themselves in an-Nujair, where
the siege was pressed against them until they were exhausted
and greatly damaged and al-Ash'ath surrendered. Some
say that the Hadramaut had come to reinforce the Kindah
but were met by Ziyad and al-Muhajir who defeated them.
The apostasy of Khaulan. Now Khaulan apostatized,
and abu-Bakr directed against them Ya'la ibn-Munyah
who fought against them until they yielded and agreed to
give sadakah. Then al-Muhajir received abu-Bakr's letter
conferring on him the governorship of San'a' and its ad-
joining districts, making his province border on what Ziyad
already held.1 Thus was al-Yaman divided among three:
al-Muhajir, Ziyad and Ya'la. The land between the ex-
treme limit of al-Hijaz and the extreme limit of Najran
was assigned to abu-Sufyan ibn-Harb.
The story of al-Ash'ath. Abu-Nasr at-Tammar from
Ibrahim an-Nakha'i: — Al-Ash'ath ibn-Kais al-Kindi, to-
gether with some of the Kindah tribe, apostatized and were 104
besieged. Al-Ash'ath secured safety for 70 of his men but
did not include himself among them. He was therefore
brought before abu-Bakr who said to him, " We shall cer-
1 Caetani, vol. ii, p. 804.
I58 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
tainly kill thee, as thou art under no safe conduct, having
excluded thyself from that group." " Nay," answered al-
Ash'ath, " Thou, successor of the Messenger of Allah, wilt
rather favor me with a wife." This abu-Bakr did, giving
him his own sister in marriage.
Three things abu-Bakr wished he had done. Al-Kasim
ibn-Sallam abu-'Ubaid x from abu-Bakr as-Siddik : — The
latter said, " I wish I had done three things that I did not do :
— I wish I had cut off the head of al-Ash'ath ibn-Kais when
he was brought before me, because it seemed to me there was
no sort of evil to be done which he would not attempt to do
or help to bring about ; I wish I had killed rather than burnt
al-Fuj&'ah when he was brought before me ; and I wish I had
directed 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab to al-'Irak as I had directed
Khalid to Syria, and thus would have extended both my
right and left arms in the cause of Allah." *
The captives of an-Nujair ransomed. 'Abdall&h ibn-
Salih al-'Ijli from ash-Sha'bi: — Abu-Bakr returned the
captives of an-Nujair by ransom receiving 400 dirhams for
each head. In order to pay for them, al-Ash'ath ibn-Kais
had to borrow from the merchants of al-Madinah. After
paying the ransom of the captives, he returned the loan.
Al-Ash'ath ibn-Kais wrote the following elegy for Bashir
ibn-al-Audah, who was one of the delegates to the Prophet
and who later apostatized, Yazid ibn-Amanat and those slain
in the battle of an-Nujair : —
" By my life — and life is not an insignificant thing to me —
I had the greatest right to hold tenaciously to those who fell dead.
There is no wonder except when they divide their captives ;
and the world after them is not safe for me.
1 am like the camel that lost her young and her milk flows,
when she longs for them and comes to the bag, stuffed with straw.
Let the tears of my eyes, therefore, flow
for the loss of the noble ibn-Amanat and the generous Bashir."
1 Bakri, p. 747, line 14.
1 Ya'fcubi, vol. ii, pp. 155-156; Mas'tidi, vol. iv, pp. 184-185.
CHAPTER XXI
AltAswad al-'Ansi and those in al-Yaman who 105
apostatized with him
Al-Aswad al-'Ansi claims to be a prophet. Al-Aswad
ibn-Ka'b ibn-'Auf al-'Ansi played the soothsayer [Ar.
kahin] and claimed to be a prophet. He was followed by
the 'Ans tribe which was named after Zaid ibn-Malik ibn-
Udad ibn-Yashjub ibn-'Arib * ibn-Zaid ibn-Kahlan ibn-
Saba, who was the brother of Murad ibn-Malik, Khalid
ibn-Milik and Sa'd al-'Ashirah ibn-Malik, together with
others outside the 'Ans tribe. Al-Aswad took for himself
the name of " Rahman [the merciful of] al-Yaman," as
Musailimah had taken the name of " Rahman al-
Yamamah." * He had a trained donkey that would bow on
hearing his injunction, " Bow before thy Lord," and that
would kneel on hearing " Kneel ". Therefore, al-Aswad
was called "dhu-1-Himar* [he of the donkey]. Others say he
was called " dhu-1-Khimar " [the veiled one] because he
always appeared with a veil and turban.4 I was told by
others from al-Yaman that he was called al-Aswad because
the color of his face was black, his proper name being
'Aihalah.
The Prophet invites him to Islam. In the year in which
the Prophet died, he sent Jarir ibn-'Abdallah al-Bajali, who
1 Wustcnfeld, Register, p. 86.
1 Hisham, p. 200, line 3.
* Mas'tidi, at-Tanbik, pp. 276-277.
* Diyarbakri, vol. ii, p. 173.
159
xSq THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
had in that same year accepted Islam, against al-Aswad, in-
viting him to Islam. But al-Aswad refused. Other reports
deny that the Prophet sent Jarir to al-Yaman.
Al-Aswad as governor of San'a'. Al-Aswad moved
against San'a' and reduced it, driving Khalid ibn-Sa'id ibn-
al-'Asi from it. Others say he rather drove al-Muhajir ibn-
abi-Umaiyah, and took quarters with Ziyad ibn-Labid al-
Baya^Li, with whom he remained until he received a message
from abu-Bakr ordering him to go to the aid of Ziyad.
When the work of Ziyad and al-Aswad was done, abu-
Bakr conferred on the latter the governorship of San'a* and
its provinces. Al-Aswad, however, was haughty and he
oppressed al-Abna', i. e., the descendants of the Persians who
were originally sent to al-Yaman by Kisra in the company
of ibn-dhi-Yazan and under the leadership of Wahriz. Al-
Aswad made them serve him and compelled them to do
things against their will. Moreover, he married al-Marzu-
banah, the wife of Badham their king, who was their gov-
ernor under Abarwiz.1 This made the Prophet direct
against him Kais ibn-Hubairah-1-Makshuh al-Muradi
(called al-Makshuh because he was cauterized on his side on
account of a disease) instructing him to win over to his side
al-Abna'. With al-Makshuh, the Prophet sent Farwah ibn- 106
Musaik al-Muradi. No sooner had they arrived at al-
Yaman, than the news of the death of the Prophet reached
them. Kais left on al-Aswad the impression that he con-
corded with his opinion, and so he got his consent to enter
San'a'. Accordingly, Kais entered San'a' with a group of
men including among others men of [the clan of] Madhhij
and some from Hamdan. He then won over to his side one
of al-Abna', Fairuz ibn-ad-Dailami, who had accepted Islam.
Kais and Fairuz then brought the chief of al-Abna' (whose
1 " Barwiz * in Caetani, vol. iv, p. 490.
ALrASWAD AL-4ANSI ifa
name according to some was Badham, and according to
others, Badham was dead by this time and his successor
was one Dadhawaih.1 The latter view is more authentic).
Dadhawaih accepted Islam.
Al-Aswad slain. Kais met That ibn-dhi-1-Hirrah M-
Himyari and won him over to his side. Many missionaries
were sent by Dadhawaih among al-Abna* who accepted
Islam and conspired to take al-Aswad unawares and slay
him. They plotted with his wife who hated him, and she
pointed out a gutter leading to his place. Through this
they entered before daybreak. Some say they dug a hole
through the wall of his house, through a crack,* and found
him sleeping under the influence of drink. Kais slew him
and he began to bellow like a bull, so much so that his guard
scared by the noise asked, " What is the matter with
Rahman al-Yaman?'" "The inspiration," answered
his wife, " is upon him." Thus they were quieted. Kais
severed his head, and, early in the morning, climbed the city
wall and shouted, "Allah is great! Allah is great! I
testify that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad
is the Prophet of Allah, and that al-Aswad, the false Pro-
phet, is the enemy of Allah !" As the followers of al-Aswad
gathered, Kais cast the head to them and they dispersed with
the exception of a few. At this the men of Kais opened the
door and put the rest of the followers of al-'Ansi to the
sword, and none escaped except those who accepted Islam.
According to some reports, however, it was Fairuz ibn-
ad-Dailami who killed al-Aswad, Kais only giving the last
stroke and severing his head. Certain scholars assert that
1 M Dadhuwaih " in Nawawi, p. 232.
2tfajar, vol. i, p. 345: "Bab ibn-dhi-1-Jirrah".
'Caetani, vol. ii, p. 683; Tabari, vol. i, p. 1865; Fida, vol. t, p. 155;
Diyarbakri, vol. ii, p. 173.
l(>2 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
the death of Kais took place five days before the expiration
of the Prophet, who on his death-bed said: "Allah has
brought about the death of al-Aswad al-'Ansi through
the righteous man Fairuz ibn-ad-Dailami," and that the
news of the conquest came to abu-Bakr ten days after 107
he had been proclaimed caliph.
Bakr ibn-al-Haitham from an-Nu'man ibn-Burzuj, one
of al-Abna' : — The Prophet's 'dtnil, whom al-Aswad drove
out of San'a', was Aban ibn-Sa'id ibn-al-' Asi ; and the one
who killed al-Aswad was Fairuz ibn-ad-Dailami.1 When
both Kais and Fairuz at al-Madinah claimed having killed
him, 'Umar pointed to Fairuz saying, " It was this lion who
killed him!"
Kais suspected of the murder of Dadhawaih. ]£ais was
charged with having killed Dadhawaih, and abu-Bakr re-
ceived the information that he was intent on expelling
al-Abna' from San'a'. Abu-Bakr's anger was thereby
aroused, and he wrote to al-Muhajir ibn-abi-Umaiyah at
his entry to San'a' as abu-Bakr's 'dtnil, instructing him to
bring Kais before him. When Kais was brought before
abu-Bakr, he was requested by him to swear fifty oaths near
the Prophet's pulpit that he did not kill Dadhawaih. This
he did, and was consequently set free by abu-Bakr, who
directed him to Syria with those of the Moslems summoned
for the invasion of the Greeks.2
1 Mirkhondi, Raudat as-Safa, vol. ii, p. 679.
2 Ar. ar~R&m = the East Romans, the Byzantines.
PART II
SYRIA
CHAPTER I
The Conquest of Syria
The " tying of the three banners.'3 When abu-Bakr was
done with the case of those who apostatized, he saw fit 1
to direct his troops against Syria. To this effect he wrote
to the people of Makkah, at-Ta'if, al-Yaman, and all the
Arabs in Najd and al-Hijaz calling them for a " holy war "
and arousing their desire in it and in the obtainable booty
from the Greeks. Accordingly, people, including those ac-
tuated by greed as well as those actuated by the hope of
divine remuneration, hastened to abu-Bakr from all quarters,
and flocked to al-Madinah. Abu-Bakr gave three banners *
to three men [appointed them commanders] namely:
Khalid ibn-Sa'id ibn-al-'Asi ibn-Umaiyah, Shurahbil ibn-
Hasanah, an ally of the banu-Jumah and 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi
ibn-Wa'il as-Sahmi. (Shurahbil, according to al-Wakidi,
was the son of 'Abdallah ibn-al-Muta' al-Kindi, Hasanah
being his mother and a freedmaid of Ma'mar ibn-Habib
ibn-Wahb ibn-Hudhaf ah ibn-Jumah. But according to al-
Kalbi, Shurahbil was the son of Rabi'ah ibn-al-Muta'
descended from Sufah, i. e., al-Ghauth ibn-Murr ibn-Udd
ibn-Tabikhah.)a The tying of these banners took place on 108
Thursday the first of Safar, year 13, after the troops
had camped at al-Jurf throughout the month of Muharram
with abu-'Ubaidah ibn-al-Jarrah leading their prayers. Abu-
1 Cf. Ya'kubi, vol. ii, p. 149.
* Zaidan, vol i, pp. 135-136.
* Tabari, vol. i, p. 2079.
165
!66 the origins of the islamic state
Bakr wanted to give a banner to abu-'Ubaidah ; but the latter
begged to be relieved. Others claim that he did give one
to him, but that report is not confirmed. The fact is that
when 'Umar became caliph, he conferred on him the gov-
ernorship of all Syria.
Abu-'Ubaidah commander-in-chief. Abu-Mikhnaf states
that 'Umar said to the commanders, " If ye altogether are
to lead a fight, your commander will be abu-'Ubaidah 'Amir
ibn-'Abdallah ibn-al-Jarrah al-Fihri, otherwise Yazid ibn-
abi-Sufyan." x Others assert that 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi acted
only as a reinforcement for the Moslems and commanded
only those who joined him.
Abu-Bakr replaces Khalid by Arwa. The assignment of
Khalid ibn-Sa'id by abu-Bakr to the leadership displeased
'Umar who approached abu-Bakr with a view to dismissing
him, charging him with being "a vain-seeking man who
tries to make his way through dispute and bigotry." * Ac-
cordingly abu-Bakr dismissed Khalid and directed abu-
Arwa ad-Dausi to take the banner from his hand. Abu-
Arwa met him at dhu-1-Marwah where he received the
banner from him and carried it back to abu-Bakr. Abu-
Bakr handed it to Yazid ibn-abi-Suf y&n * who left, with his
brother Mu'awiyah carrying the banner before him. Others
say that the banner was delivered to Yazid at dhu-1-Marwah
whence he started at the head of Khalid's army. Khalid
went with the army of Shurahbil for the divine re-
muneration.4
Abu-Bakr gives instructions to the commanders. Abu-
Bakr instructed 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi to follow the way of Ailah
1 Abu-Isma'il al-Ba§ri, Fut&h ash-Sh&m, p. 5 ; Qajar, vol. iii, pp.
I352-I3S3.
1 Skissen, vol. vi, p. 62, note 1 ; Yo'£&bif vol. ii, p. 149.
* Mas'udi, vol. iv, pp. 186-187.
4 As a volunteer.
THE CONQUEST OF SYRIA rfy
with Palestine x for objective. Yazid he instructed to fol-
low the way of Tabuk. To Shurahbil, he wrote to follow
the way of Tabuk, too. At the outset each one of the com-
manders had three thousand men tinder his leadership, but
abu-Bakr kept on sending reinforcements until each one had
7,500. Later the total was increased to 24,000.
It is reported on the authority of al-Wakidi that abu-
Bakr assigned 'Amr to Palestine, Shurahbil to the Jordan,
and Yazid to Damascus saying, " When ye all fight together,
your commander is the one in whose province ye are fight-
ing." It is also reported that to 'Amr he gave oral instruc-
tions to lead the prayers in case the armies are united, and
to have each commander lead the prayer of his own army 109
when the armies are separate. Abu-Bakr ordered the com-
manders to see that each tribe flies a banner of its own.
Abu-Bakr directs Khalid ibn-al-Walid to Syria. On
his arrival in the first district of Palestine, 'Amr ibn-al-
'Asi sent a message to abu-Bakr informing him of the great
number of the enemy, their great armament, the wide ex-
tent of their land and the enthusiasm of their troops. Abu-
Bakr, thereupon, wrote to Khalid ibn-al-Walid ibn-al-
Mughirah-1-Makhzumi — who was at that time in al-'Irak —
directing him to go to Syria. According to some, he thereby
made him a commander over the commanders in the war.
According to others, Khalid only commanded his men who
accompanied him; but whenever the Moslems met for a
battle, the commanders would choose him as their chief for
his valor and strategy and the auspiciousness of his counsel.
The battle of Dathin. The first conflict between the
Moslems and the enemy took place in Dathin,* one of the
1 Ar. Philasfin. For a description of these provinces see al-Yalpibi
Kitdb ol-Bulddn, p. 325 seq. ; Yakut, vol. iii, p. 913.
*Tabari, vol. i, p. 2108: " ad-Dathinah, and some say ad-Dathin"; cf.
Caetani, vol. ii, pp. 1138-1139.
!68 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
villages of Ghazzah, which lay on the way between the
Moslems and the residence of the patrician 1 of Ghazzah.
Here the battle raged furiously, but at last Allah gave
victory to his friends and defeat to his enemies whom he
dispersed. All this took place before the arrival of Khalid
ibn-al-Walid in Syria.
The battle of al-'Ardbah. Thence Yazid ibn-abi-Sufyan
went in quest of the partrician, but hearing that a large
host of Greeks were gathered in al-'Arabah, which lay in
Palestine, he directed against them abu-Umamah as-Sudai
ibn-'Ajlan al-Bahili, who, falling upon them, put most of
them to the sword and went his way. Regarding this
battle of al-'Arabah, abu-Mikhnaf reports that six of the
Greek leaders at the head of 3,000 men camped at al-
'Arabah when abu-Umamah with a body of Moslems ad-
vanced against them and defeated them, killing one of their
leaders. Thence he pursued them to ad-Dubbiyah (i. e.
ad-Dabiyah) * where he inflicted another defeat on them,
and the Moslems carried off a large booty.
According to a tradition communicated by abu-Haf s ash-
Shami on the authority of certain sheikhs from Syria, the
first conflict of the Moslems was the Battle of al-'Arabah
before which no fighting at all took place since they left
al-Hijaz. In no place between al-Hijaz and al-'Arabah did
they pass without establishing their authority and taking
possession of it without resistance.
1 A leader of an army, from the Latin " patricius ".
2 De Goeje, MSmoire sur la Conquete de la Syrie, p. 31.
CHAPTER II
The Advance of Khalid ibn-al-Walid on Syria and iio
the Places he reduced on his Way
Khalid takes 'Ain at-Tamr and Sandaudd' by force.
When Khalid ibn-al-Walid received abu-Bakr's letter at al-
Hirah, he left in his place al-Muthanna ibn-Harithah ash-
Shaibani over the district of al-Kufah, and set out at the
head of 800 men in Rabi' II, year 13. (Some give 600 and
others 500 as the number of men. ) On his way, he passed
through 'Ain at-Tamr and reduced it by force. (Accord-
ing to others, he received abu-Bakr's message in 'Ain at-
Tamr after having subdued it.) From 'Ain at-Tamr
Khalid made his way to Sandauda' 1 in which lived some
of the Kindah and Iyad tribes and non-Arabs.a These
people fought against him ; but Khalid won the victory and
left in the city Sa'd ibn-'Amr ibn-Haram al-Ansari whose
descendants still live in it. Khalid, having learnt that a
body of the banu-Taghlib ibn-Wa'il at al-Mudaiyah and al-
Husaid had apostatized and were led by Rabi'ah ibn-Bujair,
made his way to them. They fought against him; but he
put them to flight and took captives and booty. The cap-
tives he sent to abu-Bakr, and among them was umm-
Habib as-Sahba', daughter of Habib ibn-Bujair, and [later]
the mother of 'Umar ibn-'Ali ibn-abi-Talib.
Khalid crosses the desert to Suwa. Then Khalid made
an incursion on Kurakir which was a spring belonging to the
1Ba§ri, p. 59: "Sandawa"; Tabari, vol. i, p. 2109.
1 Ar. 'A jam ; see Muh. Stud., p. 10 1 seq.
169
170
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Kalb tribe, and thence crossed the desert to Suwa1 which was
also a spring held conjointly by the Kalb and some men of
the Bahra'. Here Khalid killed Hurkus ibn-an-Nu'man
al-Bahrani of the Kuda'ah tribe and swept off all their pos-
sessions. When Khalid wanted to cross the desert, he gave
the camels all the water they could drink and then thrust into
the camels' lips spears, which he left for them to drag,3 lest
they should ruminate and get thirsty again. The quantity
of water he carried along, though big, was exhausted on
the way. So Khalid had to slay the camels one after the
other and drink with his men the water from their bellies.
Khalid had a guide named Rafi' ibn-'Umair at-Ta'i whom
the poet meant when he said :
"How wonderful has Rafi' been, III
who succeeded in finding the way from Kurajcir to Suwa,
to the water from which the coward who attempts to reach it re-
turns before attaining it.
No human being before thee ever did that 1"
When the Moslems arrived in Suwa they found Hurkus
and a band of men drinking and singing. Hurkus himself
was saying :
" Again give me to drink before abu-Bakr's army is on,
our death may be at hand while we are unaware." *
As the Moslems killed him, his blood flowed into the basin
from which he had been drinking ; and some report that his
head, too, fell therein. It is claimed by others,4 however, that
the one who sang this verse was one of those of the banu-
Taghlib whom Khalid had attacked with Rabi'ah ibn-Bujair.
1 Basri, p. 63 : " Shuwa ".
*T*bari, vol. i, p. 2123: "He muzzled their mouths", and so Diyar-
bakri, vol. ii, p. 257; Caetani, vol. ii, p. 1106.
*C/. Tabari, vol. i, p. 2124; Afhnoire, p. 46; Diyarbakri, vol. ii, p. 25,
4 Basri, p. 62 seq.
THE ADVANCE OF KHALID ON SYRIA jyi
Khdlid in Karkisiya. According to al-Wakidi, Khalid
started from Suwa to al-Kawathil thence to Karkisiya
whose chief met him with a large host. Khalid left him
alone, turned to the mainland and went his way.
Arakah makes terms. Another place to which Khalid
came was Arakah 1 (i. e. Arak) whose people he attacked
and besieged. The city surrendered and made terms, offer-
ing a certain sum for the Moslems.
Dumat al-Jandal, Kusatn, Tadmur and al-Karyatain
taken. Dumat al-Jandal a he then reached and conquered.
Then he came to Kusam in which the banu-Mashja'ah ibn-at-
Taim ibn-an-Namir ibn-Wabarah ibn-Taghlib ibn-Hulwan
ibn-'Imr£n ibn-al-Hafi ibn-Ku^a'ah came to terms with him.
Khalid wrote them a promise of security and advanced to
Tadmur* [Palmyra]. Tadmur 's inhabitants held out
against him and took to their fortifications. At last they
sought to surrender and he wrote them a statement guaran-
teeing their safety on condition that they be considered
dhimmah people,4 that they entertain Moslems and that they
submit to them. Khalid then pushed to al-Karyatain, 112
whose people resisted him but were defeated, losing a large
booty.
Huwarxn reduced. Khalid proceeded to Huwarin5 in
Sanir and made a raid on its cattle. Its inhabitants, having
been reinforced by the inhabitants of Ba'labakk and of
Busra (the capital of Hauran) stood out against him. The
victory was won by Khalid who took some as captives and
killed others.
1 Basri, p. 67; Tabari, vol. i, p. 2109; Yakut, vol. i, p. 21.
sBaladhuri} part I, chap. XIII.
* Guy Le Strange, Palestine under the Moslems, pp. 540-542.
4 Christians, Jews and Sabians with whom a covenant has been made,
who pay a poll tax and for whose security Moslems are responsible.
1 Basri, p. 68.
I72 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Ghassan attacked. Thence he came to Marj Rahit and
led an incursion against Ghassan on their Easter day — they
being Christians. He took some captive and killed others.
Thorny at al-'Ukab. Khalid then directed Busr ibn-abi-
Artat al-'Amiri of the Kuraish and Habib ibn-Maslamah-1-
• • •
Fihri to the Ghutah * of Damascus where they attacked
many villages. Khalid arrived at Thaniyat in Damascus, the
Thaniyat al-'Ukab of to-day, and stood there for one hour,
spreading his banner. This banner was the one the Prophet
used, and was black in color; and because the Arabs call a
banner " 'ukdb" the Thaniyat was known since as Thaniyat
al-'Ukab. Others say that it was thus called because a vul-
ture [Ar. fukab] happened to descend on it at that time.
But the first explanation is more reliable. I heard it said
by some that at that place stood a stone image of a vulture.
But there is no truth in that statement.
Khalid meets abur'Ubaidah. Khalid camped at the East
[Sharki] gate of Damascus; and according to others, at the
Jabiyah gate. The bishop of Damascus offered him gifts
and homage and said to Khalid, " Keep this covenant ' for
me." Khalid promised to do so. Then Khalid went until
he met the Moslems who were at Kanat Busra. According
to others, however, he came to the Jabiyah where abu-
'Ubaidah was with a band of Moslems. Here they met and
went together to Busra.
1 A place in Damascus noted for its orchards ; ibn-Jubair, Rihlah, p.
j6i; Le Strange, p. 33.
1 What covenant is meant is not dear. This tradition may have been
confused with one that comes later and speaks of the agreement be-
tween Khalid and the bishop. Cf. Caetani, vol. ii, pp. 1204- 1205.
CHAPTER III
The Conquest of Busra
ifra comes to terms. When Khalid ibn-al-Walid at
ead of the Moslems arrived in Busra,1 all the Moslems
I red against it and put Khalid in chief command. 113
1 irew close to it and fought its patrician until he was
dr with his armed men inside the town. Others assert
tha -,*nce Busra lay within the district of Damascus and,
consequently under the rule and commandership of Yazid
ibn-abi-Sufyan, it was he who held the chief command. At
last its people came to terms stipulating that their lives,
property and children be safe, and agreeing to pay the poll-
tax. According to some reporters, the inhabitants of
Busra made terms agreeing to pay for each adult one dinar
and one jarib 2 of wheat.
Thus the Moslems conquered all the region of Hauran
[Auranitis] and subdued it.
Ma'db surrenders. Abu-'Ubaidah ibn-al-Jarrah, at the
head of a heavy detachment composed of the commanders'
troops that had joined him, led the way to Ma'ab [Moab]
in the district of al-Balka' where the enemy was massed.
Ma'ab surrendered and made terms similar to those made by
Busra. According to others, however, the conquest of
Ma'ab was effected before that of Busra. Still others assert
■
that abu-'Ubaidah conquered Ma'ab when he was the com-
mander of all the Moslem forces in Syria in the days of
'Umar.
1 Eski-Sham or Old Damascus ; Baedeker, Palestine and Syria, p. 201
(ed. 1834).
3 Mawardi, p. 265, says that al- jarib is a measure of land 10 x 10 rods.
It is also a measure of wheat that varies in different localities.
173
CHAPTER IV
The Battle of Ajnadin (or Ajnadain)
The enemy routed. The battle of Ajnadin x ensued. In
this battle about 100,000 Greeks took part, the majority of
whom were massed one band after the other by Heraclius
[Hirakl], the rest having come from the neighboring dis-
tricts. On that day, Heraclius was in Hims [Emesa].
Against this army, the Moslems fought a violent battle, and
Khalid ibn-al-Walid particularly distinguished himself. At
last, by Allah's help, the enemies of Allah were routed and
shattered into pieces, a great many being slaughtered.
The martyrs. Those who suffered martyrdom on that
day were 'Abdallah ibn-az-Zubair ibn-'Abd-al-Muttalib ibn-
Hashim, 'Amr ibn-Sa'id ibn-al-'Asi ibn-Umaiyah, his
brother Aban ibn-Sa'id (according to the most authentic re-
port. Others, however, claim that Aban died in the year
29), Tulaib ibn-'Umair ibn-Wahb ibn-'Abd ibn-Kusai (who
fought a duel with an " unbeliever " who gave him a blow
that severed his right hand making his sword fall down with
the palm. In this condition he was surrounded and killed 114
by the Greeks. His mother Arwa, daughter of cAbd-al-
Muttalib, was the Prophet's aunt. His surname was abu-
'Adi), and Salamah ibn-Hisham ibn-al-Mughirah. Accord-
ing to others, Salamah was killed at Mar j as-Suffar. Other
martyrs were: 'Ikrimah ibn-abi-Jahl ibn-Hisham al-Makh-
zumi, Habbar ibn-Sufyan ibn-'Abd-al-Asad al-Makhzumi
(who, according to others, was killed in the battle of
1 Mimoire, p. 50 seq. ; Skissen, vol. vi, p. 54.
174
THE BATTLE OF AJNADtN l7$
Mu'tah), Nu'aim ibn-'Abdallah an-Nahham al-'Adawi
(who, according to others, was killed in the battle of al-
Yarmuk), Hisham ibn-al-'Asi ibn-Wa'il as-Sahmi (who is
also supposed by others to have been slain in the battle of
al-Yarmuk), Jundub ibn-'Amr ad-Dausi, Sa'id ibn-al-
Harith, al-Harith ibn-al-Harith, and al-Hajj&j ibn-al-
Harith ibn-Kais ibn-'Adi as-Sahmi. According to Hisham
ibn-Muhammad al-Kalbi, an-Nahham was killed in the battle
of Mu'tah.
Sa'id ibn-al-Harith ibn-Kais was slain in the battle of al-
Yarmuk; Tamim ibn-al-Harith, in the battle of Ajnadin; his
brother, 'Ubaidallah ibn 'Abd-al-Asad, in al-Yarmuk; and
al-Harith ibn-Hisham ibn-al-Mughirah, in Ajnadin.
Heraclius flees to Antioch. When the news of this battle
came to Heraclius, his heart was filled with cowardice and he
was confounded. Consequently, he took to flight to Antioch
[Antakiyah] from Hims [Emesa]. It was mentioned by
someone that his flight from Hims to Antioch coincided with
the advance of the Moslems to Syria. This battle of
Ajnadin took place on Monday twelve days before the end
of Jumada I, year 13. Some, however, say two days after
the beginning of Jumada II, and others two days before
its end.
After that, the Greeks massed an army at Yakusah which
was a valley with al-Fauwarah at its mouth. There the
Moslems met them, dispelled them and put them to flight
with a great slaughter. Their remnants fled to the cities of
Syria. The death of abu-Bakr took place in Jumada II,
year 13, and the Moslems received the news in al- Yakusah.1
1 Mhnovre, p. 64.
CHAPTER V 115
The Battle of Fihl in the Province of the Jordan
Abu-'Ubaidah commander-in-chief. The battle of Fihl l
in the province of the Jordan was fought two days before
the end of dhu-1-Ka'dah and five months after the proclama-
tion of 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab as caliph. The commander-
in-chief was abu-'Ubaidah ibn-al-Jarrah, to whom 'Umar had
sent a letter with 'Amir ibn-abi-Wakkas, a brother of Sa'd
ibn-abi-Wakkas, conferring on him the governorship of
Syria and the chief command.2
Some say that the appointment of abu-'Ubaidah to the
governorship of Syria was received when Damascus was
under siege. Khalid being the chief commander in time
of war, abu-'Ubaidah concealed the appointment from him
for many days.8 When asked by Khalid for the reason,
abu-'Ubaidah said, " I hated to dishearten thee and weaken
thy position as thou stoodst facing an enemy."
Terms made after the victory. The way this battle came
about was that when Heraclius came to Antioch he sum-
moned the Greeks and the inhabitants of Mesopotamia to
go forth to war, putting them under the command of one
of his men in whom he trusted. These met the Moslems at
Fihl in the province of the Jordan and a most fierce and
bloody battle ensued, which ended, by Allah's help, in the
victory of the Moslems. The Greek patrician with about
1 Fahl or Fifel, ancient Pella ; Mhnovre, p. 73.
* Ibid., p. 106.
* Tabari, vol. i, pp. 2146 and 2147.
176
THE BATTLE OF FI#L 1 77
10,000 men was slaughtered, and the rest of the army dis-
tributed themselves in the cities of Syria, some of them join-
ing Heraclius. The inhabitants of Fihl took to the forti-
fications where they were besieged by the Moslems until they
sought to surrender, agreeing to pay tax on their heads and
kharaj on their lands. The Moslems promised them the
security of life and property, agreeing not to demolish their
walls. The contract was made by abu-'Ubaidah ibn-al-
Jarrah, but according to others, by Shurahbil ibn-Hasanah.
^o THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
quest. In that campaign Mu'awiyah distinguished himself
and left a great impression.
Mu'awiyah transplants people. Abu-Alyasa' al-Antaki
from certain sheikhs from Antioch and the Jordan: — A
body of Persians were transplanted in the year 42 by
Mu'awiyah from Ba'labakk, Hims and Antioch to the sea-
coasts of the Jordan, i. e., Tyre, Acre and other places; and
he transplanted in the same year, or one year before or after,
certain Asawirah 1 from al-Basrah and al-Kuf ah and certain
Persians from Ba'labakk and Hims to Antioch. One of
the Persian leaders was Muslim ibn-'Abdallah, grandfather
of 'Abdallah ibn-Habib ibn-an-Nu'man ibn-Muslim al-An-
taki.
•
Mu'awiyah makes repairs in Acre and Tyre. Accord-
ing to a tradition communicated to me by Muhammad ibn-
Sa'd on the authority of al-Wakidi, and by Hisham ibn-
al-Laith as-Suri on the authority of certain sheikhs from
Syria, when Mu'awiyah came to sail from Acre to Cyprqs
he made repairs in Acre ['Akka] and in Tyre [Sur] . Later
both cities were rebuilt by 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan, after
having fallen into ruins.
Hisham ibn-al-Laith from our sheikhs who said, " When
we took up our abode in Tyre and the littoral, there were
Arab troops and many Greeks already there. Later, people
from other regions came and settled with us, and that was
the case with all the sea-coast of Syria."
Artisans settled along the sear-coast. Muhammad ibn-
Sahm al-Ant&ki from contemporaneous sheikhs: — In the
year 49 the Greeks left for the sea-coast. Industry at that
time was confined to Egypt. Consequently, and in accord-
ance with Mu'awiyah ibn-abi-Sufyan's orders, certain
artisans and carpenters were gathered and settled along
the coast. As for the industry of the Jordan province it was
all confined to Acre.
1 Persian armed cavalry.
THE PROVINCE OF THE JORDAN ^i
Hisham moves the industry to Tyre. Abu-1-Khattab
al-Azdi mentioned the case of a descendant of abu-Mu'ait
who lived in Acre and ran mills and workshops. Hisham
ibn-'Abd-al-Malik wanted him to sell them to him; but the
man refused. Hisham therefore moved the industry1 to
Tyre where he ran an inn and a workshop. 1 18
Tyre a naval base. According to al-Wakidi, the ships
used to be in Acre until the time of the banu-Marwan who
moved them to Tyre, where they are until to-day.2 In the
year 247, al-Mutawakkil gave orders that the ships be
stationed in Acre and all along the coast, and he manned
them with fighters.
1Ar. sind'ah; YaTcubi, p. 327: "d&r as-sin&'oh" which means ar-
senal. The reference may be to the industry of making ships. Cf.
Le Strange, p. 342 seq.
* Ibn-Jubair, p. 305.
CHAPTER VII
The Battle of Marj as-Suffar
The "unbelievers" put to flight. The Greeks met in
great numbers and were reinforced by Heraclius. The
Moslems encountered them at Marj as-Suffar on their way
to Damascus on the first of Muharram, year 14.1 The battle
that ensued was so violent that blood flowed along with
water and turned the wheels of the mill. Of the Moslems
about 4,000 were wounded. At last the " unbelievers " took
to flight and were dispersed, disregarding everything until
they came to Damascus and Jerusalem. On that day,
Khalid ibn-Sa'id ibn-al-'Asi ibn-Umaiyah (surnamed abu-
Sa'id) fell a martyr. In the evening previous to the day
in the morning of which the battle was fought, he was
married to umm-Hakim, the daughter of al-Harith ibn-
Hisham al-Makhzumi, and the wife of 'Ikrimah ibn-abi-
Jahl.a Hearing the news of his death, umm-Hakim pulled
out the post of the tent and fought with it. On that day,
according to some report, she killed seven and had her face
still covered with the ointment perfumed with saffron*
[with which women anointed themselves on the first night
of matrimony].
According to the report of abu-Mikhnaf, this battle of
Marj took place twenty days after the battle of Ajnadin;
1 Mt moire, pp. 79-80.
1 Ibn-Sa'd, vol. iv1, p. 71.
• Tabari, vol. i, p. 3169; Agh&ni, vol. vi, pp. 6-7; Caetani, voL iii, p. 322.
182
THE BATTLE OF MAR J AS-SUFFAR i%$
the conquest of Damascus followed it, and after the con-
quest of Damascus the battle of Fihl took place. The report
of al-Wakidi, however, is more authentic.
It was regarding the battle of Mar j that Khalid ibn-Sa'id
ibn-al-'Asi said:
" Isn't there a horseman who, tired of stabbing,
would lend me his lance for the battle of Marj as^Suffar?"
Referring to this battle, ' Abdallah ibn-Kamil ibn-Habib ibn-
'Amirah ibn-Khufaf ibn-Amru'i-1-Kais ibn-Buhthah ibn-
Sulaim said :
" The tribes of Malik took part, but 'Amirah disappeared
from my sight in the battle of Marj a$-Suffar,"
meaning Malik ibn-Khuf if . 1 19
The story of the Sams amah sword. According to Hisham
ibn-Muhammad al-Kalbi, in the battle of Marj, Khalid ibn-
Sa'id suffered martyrdom with his sword as-Samsamah
hanging down from his neck. The Prophet had sent him
as 'amil to al-Yaman, and on his way he passed by the
kindred of 'Amr ibn-Ma'dikarib az-Zubaidi of Madhhij
and attacked them, taking as captives the wife of 'Amr and
other kinsmen. 'Amr proposed that Khalid grants them
their liberty and they would accept Islam. And so it was.
'Amr offered Khalid his own sword, as-Samsamah,1 saying :
MA friend whom I offered as present not because of any hatred
but because presents are for those of noble birth.
A friend whom I did not betray and who did not betray me,
and so my qualities and fellow-drinkers did not
I bestowed it on a nobleman of Kuraish
who was pleased with it and by which he was protected against the
evil men."
This sword Mu'awiyah took from the neck of Khalid when
1 Aghdni, vol. xiv, pp. 27, 31, 32.
^4 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
he fell martyr in the battle of Marj. Mu'awiyah kept it, but
its possession was later disputed by Sa'id ibn-al-'Asi ibn-
Sa'id ibn-al-'Asi ibn-Umaiyah. 'Uthman decided the case
in favor of the latter, who kept it until the battle of ad-Dar
in which Marwan was struck on the nape of the neck and
Sa'id fell unconscious by a blow. A Juhainah man took the
Samsamah. The Juhainah man kept it, and one day he
gave it to a polisher to polish it. The polisher could not
believe that one of the Juhainah could possess such a sword,
so he took it to Marwan ibn-al-Hakam, the governor of al-
Madinah, who asked the Juhainah man for an explanation,
and he told its story. " By Allah," exclaimed Marwan,
" in the battle of ad-Dar, my sword was stolen from me, and
so was that of Sa'id ibn-al-'Asi." Then came Sa'id and
recognizing his sword took it, carved his name on it, and sent
it to 'Amr ibn-Sa'id al-Ashdak, the governor of Makkah.
Sa'id perished, and the sword was left with 'Amr ibn-Sa'id.
When 'Amr ibn-Sa'id was killed at Damascus and his be-
longings were stolen, his brother on the father's side,
Muhammad ibn-Sa'id, took the sword, which later passed
to Yahya ibn-Sa'id. At the death of Yahya, it passed to 120
'Anbasah ibn-Sa'id ibn-al-'Asi and then to Sa'id ibn-'Amr
•
ibn-Sa'id. When the last perished, the sword went to
Muhammad ibn-'Abdallah ibn-Sa'id whose descendants live
now in Barik. Then it went to Aban ibn- Yahya ibn-Sa'id
who decked it with an ornament of gold and kept it with
the mother of a child [concubine] of his. At last Aiyub
ibn-abi-Aiyub ibn-Sa'id sold it to al-Mahdi the "Commander
of the Believers" for over 80,000 [dirhatns]. Al-Mahdi
put the ornament of gold back on it. When it came finally
into the possession of Musa-1-Hadi, the "Commander of the
Believers," he admired it and ordered the poet abu-I-Haul
to describe it, upon which the latter said :
THE BATTLE OF MARJ AS-SUFFAR ^5
*' He who acquired the Samsamah of 'Amr az-Zubaidi
is the best of all men — Musa-1-Amin.
It is the sword of 'Amr which as we know
is the best that a scabbard ever sheathed.
Green in color between the edges of which is a garment
of poison in which death is clad.
If one unsheathes it, its brilliancy dazzles
that of the sun, so that the sun would scarcely be seen.
When the one to be smitten is at hand,
it does not matter whether the left or the right hand applies it.
What a good sword it is for him, who wants to defend his honor,
to smite with in the battle, and what a good companion ! " 1
Later on, al-Wathik-Billah, the "Commander of the Be-
lievers," called a polisher and ordered him to temper it On
doing so, the sword was changed.
1 Cf. De Slane, ibn-Khallikan, vol. iii, p. 637.
CHAPTER VIII
The Conquest of Damascus and its Province
The positions taken by the different generals. When the
Moslems were done with the fight against those who were
gathered at al-Marj, they stayed there for fifteen days at
the end of which they returned [sic] to Damascus
[Dimashk]. This took place fourteen days before the end
of Muharram, year 14. Al-Ghutah and its churches the
Moslems took by force. The inhabitants of Damascus be-
took themselves to the fortifications and closed the gate of
the city. Khalid ibn-al-Walid at the head of some 5,000
men whom abu-'Ubaidah had put under his command, 121
camped at al-Bab ash-Sharki [the east gate]. Some assert
that Khalid was the chief commander but was dismissed
when Damascus was under siege. The convent by which
Khalid camped was called Dair Khalid.1 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi
camped at the Tuma gate; Shurahbil, at the Faradis gate,
abu-'Ubaidah at the Jabiyah gate, and Yazid ibn-abi-Suf yan
from the Saghir gate to the one known as Kaisan gate.1
Abu-ad-Darda' appointed 'Uwaimir ibn-'Amir al-Khazraji
commander of a frontier garrison settled in the fortification *
at Barzah.4
The statement written by Khalid. The bishop 5 who had
1 Diyarbakri, vol. ii, p. 259.
2H. Lammens, MFO, vol. iii1, p. 256; Kremer, Topographie von Da*
maskus, the chart next to page 36.
*M4moire, p. 90.
*Jubair, p. 274; Yakut, vol. i, p. 563.
5 Caetani, vol. iii, p. 364, note 2.
186
THE CONQUEST OF DAMASCUS ^7
provided Khalid with food at the beginning of the siege
was wont to stand on the wall.. Once Khalid called him,
and when he came, Khalid greeted him and talked with him.
The bishop one day said to him, "Abu-Sulaiman, thy case
is prospering and thou hast a promise to fulfil for me; let
us make terms for this city." Thereupon, Khalid called for
an inkhorn and parchment and wrote : —
" In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful.
This is what Khalid would grant to the inhabitants of
Damascus, if he enters therein: he promises to give them
security for their lives, property and churches. Their city-
wall shall not be demolished; neither shall any Moslem be
quartered in their houses. Thereunto we give to them the
pact of Allah and the protection of his Prophet, the caliphs
and the ' Believers \ So long as they pay the poll-tax, noth-
ing but good shall befall them."
The Moslems enter the city. One night, a friend of the
bishop came to Khalid and informed him of the fact that
it was the night of a feast * for the inhabitants of the city,
that they were all busy and that they had blocked the Sharki
gate with stones and left it unguarded. He then suggested
that Khalid should procure a ladder. Certain occupants
of the convent, by which Khalid's army camped, brought
him two ladders on which some Moslems climbed to the
highest part of the wall, and descended to the gate which
was guarded only by one or two men. The Moslems co-
operated and opened the door. This took place at sunrise.
In the meantime, abu-'Ubaidah had managed to open
the Jabiyah gate and sent certain Moslems over its wall.
This made the Greek fighters pour to his side and lead a
violent fight against the Moslems. At last, however, the
Greeks took to flight. Then abu-'Ubaidah at the head of
1 Tabari, vol. i, p. 2152.
!88 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
the Moslems opened the Jabiyah gate by force and made
their entrance through it. Abu-'Ubaidah and Khalid ibn- 122
al-Walid met at al-Maksalat which was the quarter of the
coppersmiths in Damascus. The same spot is mentioned in
a poem by Hassan ibn-Thabit under the name of al-Baris :
" He who calls at al-Baris for a drink,
[is given the water of Barada mixed with dainty wine]." l
According to other reports, one night the Greeks carried
out through the Jabiyah gate a corpse. A number of their
brave and armed men accompanied the funeral The rest
of them stood at the gate to prevent the Moslems from
opening it and entering until their Greek comrades should
have returned from the burial of the dead man, thus taking
advantage of the Moslems' state of unmindfulness. But
the Moslems knew of them and fought with them at the
gate a most fierce and bloody conflict which ended in the
opening of the gate by the Moslems at sunrise. Seeing that
abu-'Ubaidah was on the point of entering the city, the
bishop hurried to Khalid and capitulated. He then opened
the Sharki gate and entered with Khalid, with the state-
ment which Khalid had written him unfolded in his hand.
Regarding that, certain Moslems remarked, " By Allah,
Khalid is not the commander. How could his terms then
be binding?" To this, abu-'Ubaidah replied, " Even the
lowest of the Moslems can make binding terms on their be-
half." And sanctioning the capitulation made by Khalid,
he signed it, not taking into account the fact that a part of
the city was taken by force.1 Thus all Damascus was con-
sidered as having capitulated. Abu-'Ubaidah wrote to
'Umar regarding that and forwarded the message. Then
1 IJassin, Diwdn, p. 17.
• Ya'kubi, vol. ii, p. 159; Lammens, MFO, vol. iii1, p. 250.
THE CONQUEST OF DAMASCUS ^
the gates of the city were opened and all the Moslems met
within.
According to the report of abu-Mikhnaf and others,
Khalid entered the city by assault, whereas abu-'Ubaidah en-
tered it by capitulation, and they both met at the Zaiyatin 123
[market of oil-dealers]. The former report however, is
more authentic.
Al-Haitham ibn-'Adi claimed that the people of Damascus
capitulated agreeing to give up one-half of their homes and
churches. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd reported that abu-'Abdal-
lah al-Wakidi said, " I have read the statement issued by
Khalid ibn-al-Walid to the people of Damascus and found
no mention in it of 'half the homes and churches'. I do not
know where the one who reported it got his information.
The fact is that when Damascus was taken possession of, a
great number of its inhabitants fled to Heraclius who was
then at Antioch, leaving many vacant dwellings behind that
were later occupied by the Moslems."
Some one reported that it was abu-'Ubaidah who had his
quarters at the Sharki gate, and Khalid at the Jabiyah gate ;
but this view is erroneous.
The date of the conquest. According to al-Wakidi, the
conquest of Damascus was effected in Rajab, year 14,1 but
the date which Khalid's statement of capitulation bears was
Rabi' II, year 1 5. The explanation is that Khalid wrote the
statement with no date, but when the Moslems were prepar-
ing to set out against those gathered for their fight in al-
Yarmuk, the bishop came to Khalid asking him to renew
the statement and add as witnesses abu-'Ubaidah and the
Moslems. Khalid granted the request and inserted the
names of abu-'Ubaidah, Yazid ibn-abi-Sufyan, Shurahbil
ibn-Hasanah and others as witnesses. The date he put was
the one in which the statement was renewed.
1 Ya'Vubi, vol. ii, p. 159.
I90 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
The city considered as having capitulated. Al-Kasim
ibn-Sallam from Sa'id ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz at-Tanukhi: — 124
Yazid entered Damascus by capitulation through the Sharki
gate. At al-Maksal&t the two Moslem commanders met,
and the whole city was considered as having capitulated.
The siege conducted for four months. Al-Kasim from
abu-1-Ash'ath as-San'ani or abu-'Uthman as-San'ani : —
• • • •
Abu-'Ubaidah spent at the Jabiyah gate four months x con-
ducting the siege.
The case of a church. Abu-TJbaid from Raja' ibn-abi-
Salamah : — Hassan ibn-Malik presented to 'Umar ibn-'Abd-
al-'Aziz the case of a church that one of the commanders
had bestowed on him as fief, and the possession of which
was contested by the non-Arabs of Damascus. Regarding
that, 'Umar said, "If it is included in the fifteen churches
mentioned in their covenant, thou hast no claim on it."
The following was stated by Damrah on the authority of
'Ali ibn-abi-Hamalah, " The non- Arabs of Damascus dis-
puted with us the right to a church at Damascus that was
assigned by someone as fief to the banu-Nasr, and the case
was presented to 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz who took the
church from us and returned it to the Christians. When
Yazid ibn-'Abd-al-Malik, however, came to power he gave
it back to the banu-Nasr."
The poll-tax. Abu-'Ubaid from al-Auza'i who said: —
"At the outset, the poll-tax in Syria consisted of one jarib
and one dinar per head. 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab made it four
dinars on those who had gold and forty dirhams on those
who had silver, arranging them in ranks according to the
wealth of the rich, the poverty of the poor and the medium
possessions of the middle class."
Hisham heard it said by our sheikhs that the Jews were
Ya'kubi, Bui dan, p. 325 : " one year w.
THE CONQUEST OF DAMASCUS 191
for the Christians as dhimmis paying kharaj to them, and
were, therefore, included in the capitulation.
According to certain reports, one of the terms imposed by
Khalid ibn-al-Walid on the inhabitants of Damascus, when
they capitulated, was that every man should give as poll-
tax one dinar and one jarib of wheat, together with vinegar
and oil for feeding the Moslems.
'Amr an-Nakid from Aslam, the freedman of 'Umar ibn- 125
al-Khattab : — 'Umar wrote to the commanders of the prov-
inces of Syria [Ar. ajndd] instructing them to levy a tax
on every adult, making it forty dirhams on those who pos-
sessed silver, and four dinars on those who possessed gold.
Morever, he ordered that in the way of providing the Mos-
lems with wheat and oil, they have to give every Moslem
in Syria and Mesopotamia [ Ar. al-Jazirah] two modii x of
wheat and three kists * of oil per month. He also assessed
on them grease and honey, the quantity of which I do not
know; and for every Moslem in Egypt per month one
irdabb * [of wheat], clothing, and the right of being enter-
tained as guest for three days.
'Amr ibn-Hammad ibn-abi-Hanifah from Aslam: —
'Umar assessed as poll-tax four dinars on those who pos-
sessed gold, and forty dirhams on those who possessed sil-
ver, in addition to offering the Moslems a subsistence tribute
and providing them with three-days' entertainment.
A similar tradition was communicated to me by Mus'ab
on the authority of Aslam.
The cathedral of St. John. It is reported that when
Mu'awiyah ibn-abi-Suf yan came to power, he desired to add
the church of St. John to the mosque f in Damascus ; but the
1 Ar. mudi, Latin tnodius, is 17 sd's; a fcisf is half a s&'; an irdabb is
24 s&'s.
■ Al-Makfcari, Naft of-Tib, vol. i, p. 368.
I92 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Christians refused. So he refrained. Later, when 'Abd-
al-Malik ibn-Marwan was in power, he made the same re-
quest for the enlargement of the mosque offering them
money in exchange; but they refused to deliver the church
to him. In his turn, al-Walid ibn-'Abd-al-Malik called the
Christians and offered them large sums for the church, and
when they refused, he threatened them saying, " If ye do
not agree, I will surely tear it down." To this someone
replied, " He, * Commander of the Believers ', who tears
down a church will lose his wits and be affected with some
blight" Al-Walid, being angered at what was said, or-
dered that a spade be brought and began demolishing the
walls with his own hand, while he had a robe of yellow
silk on him. He then called workmen and house-razers and
they pulled the church down. Thus it was included in the
mosque. When 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-' Aziz became caliph, the
Christians complained of what al-Walid had down for their
church. 'Umar wrote to his 'amil ordering him to return
to the Christians that part which he had added to the
mosque from their church. The people of Damascus dis-
liked the idea saying, " Shall we destroy our mosque after
we have called to prayer and held service in it ? And can a
Christian church be returned [to its former owners]?"
Among the Moslems were at that time Sulaiman ibn-Habib
al-Muharibi and other canonists. They then came to the
Christians and proposed to turn over to them all the churches
of al-Ghutah that had been taken by force and were in the
hands of the Moslems, provided they give up the church
of St. John and cease to assert their claim on it. The 126
Christians rather seemed to favor the proposition and con-
sented to it. 'Umar's 'amil communicated the news to 'Umar
who was pleased and signed the agreement Next to the
tower of the Mosque of Damascus at the southern porch
stands an inscription on marble near the roof which was
THE CONQUEST OF DAMASCUS 193
part of that which was built by the order of al-Walid the
" Commander of the Believers " in the year 86.
The wall of Damascus. I myself heard Hisham ibn-
'Ammar say, " The wall around the city of Damascus re-
mained standing until it was demolished by 'Abdallah ibn-
*Ali ibn-'Abdallah ibn-al-' Abbas after the question between
Marwan and the banu-Umaiyah had been settled."
Basra, Adhri'&t, al-Bathaniyah and other places reduced.
Abu-Haf s ad-Dimashki from the muezzin of the Damascus
Mosque and other men : — At the arrival of Khalid, the Mos-
lems gathered their forces against Busra, and it capitulated.
They then were dispersed throughout all Hauran which
they subdued. The chief of Adhri'at came to them offering
to capitulate on the same terms on which the people of
Busra had capitulated and agreeing to make all the land of
al-Bathaniyah x a khardj land. The request was granted, and
Yazid ibn-abi-Suf yan entered the city and made a covenant
with its people. Thus the two districts of Hauran and al-
Bathaniyah came under the full control of the Moslems.
Thence they came to Palestine and the Jordan, invading what
had not yet been reduced. Yazid marched against 'Amman
and made an easy conquest of it, making terms of capitula-
tion similar to those of Busra. Besides, he effected the
complete conquest of the province of al-Balka'. When abu-
IJbaidah came to power, all that was already conquered.
At the conquest of Damascus, abu-'Ubaidah was the com-
mander-in-chief; but the terms of capitulation were made
by Khalid, abu-'Ubaidah concurring.
'Arandal, ash-Shardt and the sea-coast reduced. During
the governorship of abu-'Ubaidah, Yazid ibn-abi-Sufyan
went and took possession of 'Arandal 2 by capitulation. He
1 Modern Nukrah in Pauran.
*The correct form is Gharandal; Ya'Jcubi, Buld&n, p. 326; Baedeker,
P- ISO.
194 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
also subdued the province of ash-Sharat with its moun-
tains. It is stated by Sa'id ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz on the au-
thority of al-Wadin that after the [second] conquest of
Damascus Yazid came to Sidon, 'Irkah,1 Jubail, and Bierut
(which lie on the sea-coast) a with his brother, Mu'awiyah,
leading the van of the army. These cities he conquered with
great facility, expelling many of their inhabitants. The
conquest of 'Irkah was effected by Mu'awiyah himself when
Yazid was governor. Toward the close of the caliphate of 127
'Umar ibn-al-Khattab or the beginning of the caliphate of
'Uthman ibn-' Aff&n, the Greeks restored some of these coast-
towns, and Mu'awiyah again marched against those towns
and conquered them. He then made repairs in them and
stationed garrisons in them among whom he distributed
the fiefs.
Tripoli captured. When 'Uthman was made caliph and
Mu'awiyah became governor of Syria, the latter directed
Sufyan ibn-Mujib al-Azdi to Tripoli [ Atrabulus] which was
a combination of three cities.* Sufyan erected on a plain
a few miles from the city a fort which was called Hisn
Sufyan [Sufyan fort], intercepted the recruits from the sea
as well as from the land and laid siege to the city. When
the siege was pressed hard against them, the inhabitants of
Tripoli met in one of the three fortifications and wrote to
the king of the Greeks asking for relief through reinforce-
ment or ships on which they might escape and flee to him.
Accordingly, the king sent them many ships which they
boarded in the night time and fled away. When Sufyan
arose in the morning — he having been accustomed to sleep
1"'ArkahM in Hamadhani, Bulddn, p. 105; Caetani, vol. iii, p. 801;
"Correggi: 'Arqaq".
* Journal Asiatique, 1859, vol. i, p. 120, note 1.
* As its Greek name designates.
THE CONQUEST OF DAMASCUS I95
every night in his fort, and fortify the Moslems in it, and to
rise up in the morning against the enemy — he discovered
that the fortification in which the people of Tripoli were
was vacant. Immediately he entered it and sent the news of
the conquest to Mu'awiyah. Mu'awiyah made it a dwelling-
place for a large body of Jews. It is this fortification in
which the harbor of the city is to-day. Later 'Abd-al-Malik
built it and made it stronger.
Mu'awiyah used to send every year to Tripoli a large
body of troops to guard the city and used to assign it to a
different 'dmil; but in case the sea was closed, the fdtnil
with a small band would stay and the rest would return.
This state of affairs lasted until 'Abd-al-Malik began to rule.
In the days of the latter, one of the Greek patricians with a
large body of men came to the city and asked for a promise
of safety, agreeing to settle therein and pay kharaj. His
request was granted. He had not been there two years or
two years and a few months when he took advantage of the
absence of the troops from the city, shut its gate and killed
the 'atnil, taking his soldiers and many Jews as captives.
He then made his way together with his followers to the
land of the Greeks [Asia Minor]. Later the Moslems
caught him on the sea going to a Moslem coast-town with
a large number of ships, and killed him. Others say they
took him captive and sent him to 'Abd-al-Malik who killed
and crucified him. I heard someone say that 'Abd-al-Malik
sent someone who besieged him in Tripoli until he surren- 128
dered and was carried before 'Abd-al-Malik who killed and
crucified him. Some of his followers took to flight and
got as far as the land of the Greeks.
*Ali ibn-Muhammad al-Mada'ini related on the authority
of 'Attab ibn-Ibrahim that Tripoli was conquered by Suf yan
ibn-Mujib, that its inhabitants violated the covenant in the
days of 'Abd-al-Malik and that it was reduced by al-Walid
ibn-'Abd-al-Malik in his reign.
I96 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
The Mediterranean littoral reduced. Abu-Hafs ash-
Shami from al-Wadin : — At first Yazid ibn-abi-Suf yan di-
rected Mu'awiyah against the littoral of the province of
Damascus excluding Tripoli whose possession he did not
covet. Mu'awiyah sometimes spent on the reduction of the
fort a few days — two or more — in the course of which he
was resisted either slightly or strongly before he could take
it.
When the Moslems conquered a city, whether so situated
as to overlook a wide territory or on the coast, they would
station in it whatever number of Moslems was necessary;
and if the enemy in it should start a revolt the Moslems
would flock to it for reinforcement. But when 'Uthman
ibn-'Affan became caliph he wrote to Mu'awiyah instructing
him to fortify the coast-cities and man them, and to give
fiefs to those whom he settled in them. Mu'awiyah did
accordingly.
Abu-Hafs from Sa'id ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz who said: — "I
heard it said by some that after the death of his brother
Yazid, Mu'awiyah wrote to 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab describing
the condition of the coast-towns. 'Umar wrote back order-
ing that their fortifications be repaired, that garrisons be
stationed in them, that watchmen be posted on their towers
and that means be taken for lighting the fire on the towers to
announce the approach of the enemy. 'Umar gave
Mu'awiyah no permission to carry out a naval campaign.
But Mu'awiyah insisted so much that 'Uthman allowed him
to carry out a sea expedition and instructed him to keep
ready in the coast-cities troops in addition to those already
in them, whether he wanted to set out on the campaign in
person or send some one else on it. He also instructed him
to give the garrison lands and distribute among them what-
ever houses had been evacuated, and to establish new
mosques and enlarge those that had been established before
his caliphate."
THE CONQUEST OF DAMASCUS igy
According to al-Wadin, after that, men from all quarters
moved to the coast cities.
'Alkamah nominated governor of Haurdn. A1-* Abbas
ibn-Hisham al-Kalbi from Ja'far ibn-Kilab al-Kilabi: —
'Alkamah ibn-'Ulathah ibn-'Auf ibn-al-Ahwas ibn-Ja'far
ibn-Kilab was assigned by 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab to the gov-
ernorship of Hauran and he was made responsible to Mu'a- 129
wiyah. This position he held until his death. Before his
death he heard that al-Hutai'ah-l-'Absi was coming to visit
him ; so 'Alkamah bequeathed to him in his will a share equal
to one of his sons' shares. Hence the poem of al-Hu-
tai'ah : *
" Between me and becoming rich — had I only reached thee, when thou
wert still living —
there would have been an interval of only a few nights/'
Kubbash farm. I was told by certain learned men
among whom was a neighbor of Hisham ibn-'Ammar that
abu-Sufyan ibn-Harb possessed in the pre-Islamic period,
in which he carried on trade with Syria, a village in al-
Balka' called Kubbash. This village passed into the pos-
session of Mu'awiyah and his son, and at the beginning of
the [Abbasid] dynasty, it was confiscated and possessed by
certain sons of al-Mahdi, the " Commander of the Believ-
ers." Then it passed into the hands of certain oil-sellers
of al-Kufah known as the banu-Nu'aim.
The Prophet gives fief to Tamim and Nu'aim. 'Abbas
ibn-Hisham from his grandfather : — Once came Tamim ibn-
Aus of the banu-ad-D&r ibn-Hani' ibn-Habib of [the tribe
of] Lakhm, surnamed abu-Rukaiyah, with his brother Nu'-
aim ibn-Aus, to the Prophet who gave them as fief Hibra,
Bait-'Ainun 2 and Mas j id Ibrihim, and to that end he wrote
1 Goldziher: "Der Diwan des 6arwal b. Aus al-Eutej'a" in ZDMG,
vol. xlvi, p. 30.
' Ibn-Duraid, p. 226.
I98 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
a statement. When Syria was subdued, all that was restored
to them. When Sulaiman ibn-'Abd-al-Malik used to pass
near this land he would not stop in it saying, " I am afraid
the curse of the Prophet will follow me."
'Umar gives stipends to diseased Christians. Hishim
ibn-'Ammar told me he heard it said by certain sheikhs
that on his way to al-Jabiyah in the province of Damascus,
"Umar ibn-al-Khattab passed by certain Christians smitten
with elephentiasis * and he ordered that they be given some-
thing out of the sadakahs and that food stipends be assigned
to them.
Dair Khalid. Hishim reported that he heard it said by
al-Walid ibn-Muslim that Khalid ibn-al-Walid made a con-
dition in favor of the convent known as Dair Khalid, when
its occupants offered him a ladder to climb to the city wall,
to the effect that their kharaj be reduced. The condition
was enforced by abu-'Ubaidah.
The terms with Balabakk. When abu-'Ubaidah was
done with Damascus, he advanced to Hims. On his way, 130
he passed through Ba'labakk whose inhabitants sought to
secure safety and capitulate. Abu-'Ubaidah made terms
guaranteeing the safety of their lives, possessions and
churches. To that end he wrote the following statement :
" In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful.
This is a statement of security to so and so, son of so and
so, and to the inhabitants of Ba'labakk — Greeks, Persians
and Arabs — for their lives, possessions, churches and houses,
inside and outside the city and also for their mills. The
Greeks are entitled to give pasture to their cattle within a
space of 1 5 miles, yet are not to abide in any inhabited town.
After Rabi' and Jumada I shall have passed, they are at
1 Ar. mujadhdhamln, see KanUU, T&j al-'Ar&s and Nihdyah; Caetani,
vol. iii, p. 933, translates : " mutilati ".
THE CONQUEST OF DAMASCUS 199
liberty to go where they will. Whosoever of them adopts
Islam, shall have the same rights as we and be bound by
the same obligations ; and their merchants are entitled to go
whither they will in the countries that have become ours
through capitulation. Those of them who do not adopt
Islam x are bound to pay poll-tax and khar&j. Allah is wit-
ness and his witness is sufficient"
1 C/. Zaidan, vol. iv, p. 122, Margoliouth's translation.
CHAPTER IX
HlMS
The inhabitants capitulate. 'Abbas ibn-Hisham from
abu-Mikhnaf: — When abu-'Ubaidah was through with
Damascus, he sent ahead of him Khalid ibn-al-Walid and
Milhan ibn-Zaiyar at-Ta'i and then he followed them.
When they met in Hims [Emesa],1 the people of the city
resisted them, but finally sought refuge in the city and asked
for safety and capitulation. They capitulated to abu-'Ubai-
dah agreeing to pay 170,000 dinars.2
As-Sitnt captures Hims. According to al-Wakidi and
others, as the Moslems stood at the gates of Damascus there
appeared a dense band of the enemy's horsemen. The troops
of the Moslems set out and met them between Bait-Lihya
and ath-Thaniyah. The enemy was defeated and took to
flight in the direction of Hims via Kara. The Moslems
pursued them to Hims but found that they had turned away
from it. The people of Hims saw the Moslems and, being
scared because Heraclius had run away from them and be-
cause of what they heard regarding the Moslems' power,
valor and victory, they submitted and hastened to seek the 131
promise of security. The Moslems guaranteed their safety
and refrained from killing them. The people of Hims
offered them food for their animals and for themselves and
the Moslems camped on the Orontes [al-Urunt, or al-
Urund] (the river which empties its water in the sea near
1 Yakut, vol. ii, p. 335 ; Skissen, vol. vi, p. 6b.
* Ya'kubi, vol. ii, p. 16b.
200
&IMS 20i
Antioch). The commander of the Moslems at that time
was as-Simt ibn-al-Aswad al-Kindi.
When abu-'Ubaidah was through with Damascus, he left
over it in his place Yazid ibn-abi-Sufyan, came to Hims
via Ba'labakk, and encamped at the Rastan gate. The people
of Hims capitulated, and he guaranteed the safety of their
lives, possessions, city-wall, churches, and wells excluding
one-fourth of St. John's Church which was to be turned
into a mosque. He made it a condition on those of them
who would not embrace Islam to pay kharaj.1
According to certain reports, it was as-Simt ibn-al-Aswad
al-Kindi who made the terms with the people of Hims.
When abu-'Ubaidah arrived, he caused the terms to take ef-
fect. As-Simt divided the city into lots, each marked for
one Moslem to build his house. He also made them settle
in every place whose occupants had evacuated it and in
every yard that was deserted.
The terms with Hamah, Shaizar, Fdmiyah and other
places. Abu-Hafs ad-Dimashki from Sa'id ibn-'Abd-al-
' Aziz : — When abu-'Ubaidah ibn-al-Jarrah effected the con*
quest of Damascus, he left over it as his lieutenant Yazid
ibn-abi-Sufyan; over the province of Palestine, 'Amr ibn-
al-'Asi; and over the province of the Jordan, Shurahbil.
He then advanced to Hims whose people capitulated on the
same terms as those of Ba'labakk. Leaving over Hims
'Ubadah ibn-as-Samit al-Ansari, he pushed towards Ham&h
[Epiphania] whose people met him offering their submis-
sion. He made terms with them, stipulating that they pay
tax on their heads and kharaj on their land. Thence he
proceeded towards Shaizar. The people of Shaizar
[Larissa] went out to meet him bowing2 before him and
1 Noldeke, ZDMG, vol. xxix, p. 76 seq; Caetani, vol. iii, p. 432, note 2.
» Ar. kaffara; see GGA, 1863, p. 1348; Kashsh&f, vol. i, p. 22.
202 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
accompanied by players on the tambourines and singers.
They agreed to terms similar to those made with the peo-
ple of Hamah. Abu-'Ubaidah's horsemen reached as far as
az-Zarra'ah and al-Kastal. He then passed through Ma'-
arrat Hims [Ma'arrat an-Nu'm&n] which was named after
an-Nu'man ibn-Bashir.1 Its people came out playing on tam-
bourines and singing before him. Thence he came to
Famiyah whose people met him in the same way and con-
sented to pay poll-tax and kharaj. Thus was the question
of Hims brought to an end, and Hims and Kinnasrin be-
came parts of one whole.2
The " Junds " and " 'Awasim" There is a disagreement
regarding the name " Jund " * [as applied to the military
districts of Syria] . According to some, Palestine was called 132
" Jund " by the Moslems because it was a collection of many
provinces, and so was each of Damascus, Jordan, Hims
and Kinnasrin. According to others, each district which
had an army that received its monthly allowance in it was
called "Jund." Thus Mesopotamia belonged to Kinnasrin ;
but 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan made it a separate " Jund,"
that is, made its army take its allowance from its kharaj.
'Abd-al-Malik was asked to do so by Muhammad ibn-
Marwan. Down to the time of Yazid ibn-Mu'&wiyah,
Kinnasrin and its districts were included in the province of
Hims; but Yazid constituted Kinnasrin, Antioch, Manbij
and their districts as one " Jund." When ar-Rashid H&-
run ibn-al-Mahdi was made caliph, he set Kinnasrin apart
and made of it and its districts one " Jund." He also
separated Manbij, Duluk, Ra'b&n, Kurus, Antioch and
Tizin and called them " al-' Awasim " * because these were
1 Yakut, al-Mushtarik, p. 401.
* Cf. Caetani, vol. iii, p. 790, line 7.
• The same word is commonly used for " troops w.
4 Zaidan, vol. i, p. 153 ; the word means " those that give protection."
fflMS 203
the cities to which the Moslems resorted after making an in-
vasion and leaving the frontier cities, and where they were
safe and protected. The chief city of " al-'Awasim " he
made Manbij [Hierapolis]. In this city 'Abd-al-Malik
ibn-Salih ibn-'Ali lived in the year 173 and erected many
buildings.
AULadhikiyah entered. Abu-Hafs ad-Dimashki from
Sa'id ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz, and Musa ibn-Ibrahim at-Tanukhi
from certain sheikhs of Hims : — Abu-'Ubaidah appointed in
his place over Hims 'Ub&dah ibn-as-Samit al-Ansari who
left for al-Ladhikiyah.1 Its people resisted him and the
city had a massive gate that could be opened only by a
number of men. Seeing how difficult it was to reduce the
city, 'Ubadah encamped at a distance from it and or-
dered that trenches like canals be dug, each one large enough
to conceal a man with his horse. The Moslems made
special effort and got the work done. They then pretended
to be returning to Hims ; but no sooner had the night fallen
with its darkness, than they returned to their camp and
trenches, while the people of al-Ladhikiyah were negligent
of them being under the impression that the Moslems had 133
left them. Early in the morning, they opened their gate and
drove forth their cattle ; but how terrified they were to meet
the Moslems and see them enter through the gate! Thus
was the city taken by force. 'Ubadah entered the fort and
then climbed its wall and called " Allah is great " etc. Cer-
tain Christians of al-Ladhikiyah fled to al-Yusaiyid, and
later sought to surrender, agreeing to return to their lands.
They were assigned to lands, and a fixed khardj 2 was as-
sessed to be paid by them every year whether they should in-
crease or decrease in number. Their church was left for
1 Laodicea; Yakut, vol. iv, p. 338.
2 Khar&j mukdfa'ah. See Berchem, La PropriM Territoriale, p. 45.
204
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
them. The Moslems, following the order of 'Ubadah,
erected in al-Ladhikiyah a cathedral mosque that was later
enlarged.
Al-Ladhikiyah destroyed and rebuilt. In the year ioo,
when 'Abd-al-'Aziz was caliph, the Greeks made a descent
by sea on the coast of al-Ladhikiyah. They destroyed the
city and took its inhabitants prisoners. 'Umar ordered
that it be rebuilt and fortified and asked the [Greek]
" tyrant " l to accept ransom for the Moslem prisoners.
But this was not carried out till after his death in the year
101. The city was completed and garrisoned by the order
of Yazid ibn-'Abd-al-Malik.
According to a tradition communicated by one from al-
Ladhikiyah, 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz fortified the city and
finished its work before he died. All what Yazid ibn-
'Abd-al-Malik did was to repair the city and increase its
garrison.
Bald ah taken by assault. Abu-Hafs ad-Dimashki from
Sa'id ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz and Sa'id ibn-Sulaiman al-Himsi : —
'Ubadah with the Moslems appeared at the coast and took
by assault a city called Baldah lying two parasangs from
Jabalah. The city was later destroyed and its inhabitants
evacuated it. Jabalah, which was a fortification for the
Greeks and was deserted by them when the Moslems con-
quered Hims, was established by Mu'awiyah ibn-abi-Suf yan
and guarded by a garrison.
The fort of Jabalah. Sufyan ibn-Muhammad al-
Bahrani from certain sheikhs: — Mu'awiyah erected for
Jabalah2 a fort outside the older Greek fort which was
now inhabited by monks and others devoted to religious
exercises.
1Ar. fdghiyoh, an appellation of the Byzantine emperor used by the
Arabian writers.
3Gabala, Gibellus Major, or Zibel; Le Strange, pp. 450-460.
VMS 2OS
Antartus reduced. Sufyan ibn-Muhammad from his
father and sheikhs : — 'Ubadah with the Moslems conquered
Antartus [Tortosa] which was a fortified town and which
was evacuated by its holders. Mu'awiyah built Antartus
and fortified it * giving the fiefs to the holders of the fort.
The same thing he did with Marakiyah and Bulunyas.
Guards stationed in the littoral towns. Abu-Hafs ad- 134
Dimashki from his sheikhs: — Abu-'Ubaidah effected the
conquest of al-Ladhikiyah, Jabalah and Antartus through
'Ubadah ibn-as-Samit and used to put them in charge of a
guard until the time in which the sea was closed.2 When
Mu'awiyah stationed garrisons in the coast cities and forti-
fied them, he put garrisons in, and fortified these cities,
too, and treated them as the other littoral towns.
Salamyah. It was reported to me by a sheikh from
Hims that close to Salamyah [Salaminias] lay a city called
Mu'takifah which one day was completely destroyed by an
earthquake and only one hundred of its inhabitants survived.
The survivors erected one hundred houses and lived in them.
This new settlement was called Silm Mi' ah * which name
was corrupted into Salamyah. Later there came to this place
Salih ibn-'Ali ibn-'Abdallah ibn-' Abbas, fortified it and lived
in it with his sons. Many of his descendants still have
their abode in it. According to ibn-Sahm al-Antaki, how-
ever, Salamyah is an ancient Greek name.
Marwdn destroys the wall of Hints. I was told by
Muhammad ibn-Musaffa-1-Himsi that the wall of Hims
. . • • • .
was destroyed by Marwan ibn-Muhammad, because in his
retreat before the people of Khurasan, he passed by the
1 Yakut, vol. i, p. 388.
1 The guard was posted in them so long as the sea was open for navi-
gation, i. e., until winter time.
• M The safety of one hundred."
206 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
people of Hims, who had broken off from their allegiance,
and they carried away some of his baggage, property and
armories.
AUFadl ibn-Karin and Musa ibtirBugha as governors of
Hims. The city of Hims had stones for pavement In the
days of Ahmad ibn-Muhammad ibn-abi-Ishak al-Mu'tasim-
• • • • • •
Billah, the people rose against his ldmil over them, al-Fadl
ibn-Karin at-Tabari, a brother of Mayazdiyar ibn-Karin,1
and in accordance with his orders the pavement was re-
moved. They rebelled again, repaved the city and fought
against al-Fa^l ibn-Karin until they worsted him. After
robbing him of his money and wives, they put him to death
and crucified him. Al-Mu'tasim directed against them Musa
ibn-Bugha-1-Kabir [the Elder] his freedman, and the in-
habitants including a large number of Christians and Jews,
fought against him. After a fearful slaughter, Musa put
the survivors to flight, pursued them to the city and entered
it by force. This took place in the year 250.
Hims is the seat of a large granary that receives wheat
and oil from the cities of the coast and other places that
were given out as fiefs for their holders and recorded for
them as such in special record books.
1 Cf. Athir, vol. vii, p. 88.
CHAPTER X 135
The Battle of al-Yarmuk
A description of the battle. Heraclius gathered large
bodies of Greeks, Syrians, Mesopotamians and Armenians
numbering about 200,00a1 This army he put under the
command of one of his choice men2 and sent as a van-
guard Jabalah ibn-al-Aiham al-Ghassani at the head of the
" naturalized " Arabs [tnusta'ribah] of Syria of the tribes
of Lakhm, Judham and others, resolving to fight the Mos-
lems so that he might either win or withdraw to the land
of the Greeks a and live in Constantinople. The Moslems
gathered together and the Greek army marched against
them. The battle they fought at al-Yarmuk was of the
fiercest and bloodiest kind.4 Al-Yarmuk [Hieromax] is a
river. In this battle 24,000 Moslems took part. The Greeks
and their followers in this battle tied themselves to each
other by chains, so that no one might set his hope on flight.
By Allah's help, some 70,000 of them were put to death, and
their remnants took to flight, reaching as far as Palestine,
Antioch, Aleppo, Mesopotamia and Armenia. In the battle
of al-Yarmuk certain Moslem women took part and fought
violently. Among them was Hind, daughter of 'Utbah and
1 De Gocjc, Mimoire sur la Conquite de la Syrie, p. 107.
* Tabari, vol. i, p. 2347.
• ♦. e., Asia Minor; Arabic— Bildd ar-R&m.
4 Al-Basri, Fut&li ash- Sham, p. 130 seq. ; Pseudo-Wakidi, Futufr ash-
Sham, vol. iif pp. 52-35.
207
208 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
mother of Mu'awiyah ibn-abi-Sufyan, who repeatedly ex-
claimed, " Cut the arms of these ' uncircumcised ' with your
swords !" Her husband abu-Suf yan had come to Syria as a
volunteer desiring to see his sons, and so he brought his wife
with him. He then returned to al-Madinah where he died.
year 3 1 , at the age of 88. Others say he died in Syria. When
the news of his death was carried to his daughter, umm-
Habibah, she waited until the third day on which she or-
dered some yellow paint and covered with it her arms and
face saying, " I would not have done that, had I not heard
the Prophet say, 'A woman should not be in mourning for
more than three days over anyone except her husband.' "
It is stated that she did likewise when she received the news
of her brother Yazid's death. But Allah knows best.
Those who lost an eye or suffered martyrdom. Abu-
Suf yan ibn-Harb was one-eyed. He had lost his eye in the
battle of at-Ta'if. In the battle of al-Yarmuk, however,
al-Ash'ath ibn-Kais, Hashim ibn-'Utbah ibn-abi-Wakkas
az-Zuhri (i. e. al-Mirkal) and Kais ibn-Makshuh, each lost 136
an eye. In this battle 'Amir ibn-abi-Wakkas az-Zuhri
fell a martyr. It is this 'Amir who once carried the letter
of 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab assigning abu-'Ubaidah to the gov-
ernorship of Syria. Others say he was a victim of the
plague ; still others report that he suffered martyrdom in the
battle of Ajnadin ; but all that is not true.
Habib ibn-Maslamah pursues the fugitives. Abu-
'Ubaidah put Habib ibn-Maslamah-1-Fihri at the head of a
cavalry detachment charged with pursuing the fugitive
enemy,1 and Habib set out killing every man whom he could
reach.
The story of Jabalah. Jabalah ibn-al-Aiham sided with
the Ansdr saying, "Ye are our brethren and the sons of our
1 Athir, vol. i, p. 179.
THE BATTLE OF AL-YARMOK
209
fathers," and professed Islam. After the arrival of 'Umar
ibn-al-Khattab in Syria, year 17, Jabalah had a dispute with
one of the Muzainah and knocked out his eye. 'Umar or-
dered that he be punished, upon which Jabalah said, " Is his
eye like mine? Never, by Allah, shall I abide in a town
where I am under authority." He then apostatized and
went to the land of the Greeks. This Jabalah was the king
of Ghassan 1 and the successor of al-Harith ibn-abi-Shimr.
According to another report, when Jabalah came to 'Umar
ibn-al-Khattab, he was still a Christian. 'Umar asked him
to accept Islam and pay sadakah; but he refused saying,
" I shall keep my faith and pay sadakah." 'Umar's answer
was, " If thou keepest thy faith, thou hast to pay poll-tax.,,
The man refused, and 'Umar added, " We have only three
alternatives for thee : Islam, tax or going whither thou wili-
est" Accordingly, Jabalah left with 30,000 men to the land
of the Greeks [Asia Minor]. 'Ubadah ibn-as-Samit gently
reproved 'Umar saying, " If thou hadst accepted sadakah
from him and treated him in a friendly way, he would have
become Moslem."
In the year 21, 'Umar directed 'Umair ibn-Sa'd al-
Ansari at the head of a great army against the land of the
Greeks, and put him in command of the summer expedition2
which was the first of its kind. 'Umar instructed him to
treat Jabalah ibn-al-Aiham very kindly and to try and appeal
to him through the blood relationship between them, so that
he should come back to the land of the Moslems with the
understanding that he would keep his own faith and pay the
amount of sadakah he had agreed to pay. 'Umair marched
until he came to the land of the Greeks and proposed to
1 Noldeke : "Die Ghassinischen Fursten" in Abhandlungen der Konig-
lichen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin), 1887, No. II, p. 45 seq.
'Zaidan, vol. i, p. 155; Kudamah, KitQb al-Khardj in ibn-Khur-
dadhbih, Kit&b al-Mas&lik, p. 259.
2io THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Jabalah what he was ordered by 'Umar to propose; but
Jabalah refused the offer and insisted on staying in the land
of the Greeks. 'Umair then came into a place called al-
Himar — a valley — which he destroyed putting its inhabi- 137
tants to the sword. Hence the proverb, " In a more ruined
state than the hollow of Himar." *
Heracliusf adieu to Syria. When Heraclius received the
news about the troops in al-Yarmuk and the destruction
of his army by the Moslems, he fled from Antioch to Con-
stantinople, and as he passed ad-Darb a he turned and said,
" Peace unto thee, O Syria, and what an excellent country
this is for the enemy !" * — referring to the numerous pas-
tures in Syria.
The battle of al-Yarmuk took place in Rajab, year 15.*
Hubdsh loses his leg. According to Hisham ibn-al-Kalbi,
among those who witnessed the battle of al-Yarmuk was
Hubash ibn-Kais al-Kushairi, who killed many of the ' un-
circumcised " and lost his leg without feeling it. At last
he began to look for it. Hence the verse of Sauwar ibn-
Aufa:
"Among us were ibn-'Attab and the one who went seeking his leg;
and among us was one who offered protection to the quarter/'
— referring to dhu-1-Rukaibah.5
Christians and Jews prefer Moslem rule. Abu-Hafs
ad-Dimashki from Sa'id ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz : — When Her-
aclius massed his troops against the Moslems and the Mos-
1 Bakri, vol. i, p. 254. Freytag, Praverbia, vol. i, p. 231, no. 66.
9 The pass of Taurus.
* Tabari. vol. i, pp. 2595 and 2396.
4 The date of the Yarmuk is confused by some Arabian historians
with that of Ajnadin, Jumada ii, year 13; see Athir, vol. ii, p. 315.
*Kdmiis: "his name was Malik".
THE BA TTLE OF AL-YARMOK 2 1 1
lems heard that they were coming to meet them at al-
Yarmuk, the Moslems refunded to the inhabitants of Hims
the khardj x they had taken from them saying, "We are too
busy to support and protect you. Take care of yourselves."
But the people of Hims replied, " We like your rule and
justice far better than the state of oppression and tyranny *
in which we were. The army of Heraclius we shall indeed,
with your 'amil's help, repulse from the city." The Jews
rose and said, " We swear by the Thorah, no governor of
Heraclius shall enter the city of Hims unless we are first
vanquished and exhausted!" Saying this, they closed the
gates of the city and guarded them. The inhabitants of
the other cities — Christian and Jew — that had capitulated to
the Moslems, did the same, saying, " If Heraclius and his
followers win over the Moslems we would return to our
previous condition, otherwise we shall retain our present
state so long as numbers are with the Moslems." When
by Allah's help the " unbelievers " were defeated and the
Moslems won, they opened the gates of their cities, went
out with the singers and music players who began to play,
and paid the khardj.
Abu-'Ubaidah reduces Kinnasrin and Antioch. Abu-
'Ubaidah marched against the province of Kinnasrin and
Antioch and reduced it.
ShuraJibil transferred to Hints. Al-'Abb4s ibn-Hisham
al-Kalbi from his grandfather : — As-Simt ibn-al-Aswad al-
Kindi distinguished himself as a fighter in the battle of 138
al-Yarmuk and particularly in Syria and Hims. It was he
who divided the houses of Hims among its people. His
son Shurahbil was in al-Kuf ah disputing the leadership over
the Kindah tribe with al-Ash'ath ibn-Kais al-Kindi. Now,
1 Yusuf, p. 81.
1 Barhebraeus, Chron. Eccles., vol. i, p. 274.
212 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
as-Simt appeared before 'Umar saying, " ' Commander of
the Believers ', I see thou dost not separate even captives
from one another, yet thou hast separated me from my son.
Change his position, if thou pleasest, to Syria, or mine to al-
Kufah." " Well," said 'Umar, " I shall change his position
to Syria." Accordingly, Shurahbil took up his abode in
Hims with his father.
CHAPTER XI
Palestine
Places conquered by 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi. Abu-Hafs ad-
Dimashki from learned sheikhs : — The first conflict between
Moslems and Greeks took place in the caliphate of abu-Bakr
in the province of Palestine, the one in chief command over
the Moslems being 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi. Later on in the cali-
phate of abu-Bakr, 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi effected the conquest
of Ghazzah, then Sabastiyah x and Nabulus [Neapolis] with
the stipulation that he guaranteed to the inhabitants the
safety of their lives, their possessions and their houses on
condition that they pay poll-tax, and kharaj on their land.
He then conquered Ludd [Lydda] and its district, and then
Yubna [Jabneh or Jabneel], 'Amawas [Emmaus] and Bait-
Jabrin 2 [Eleutheropolis] where he took for himself an es-
tate * which he named 'Ajlan after a freedman of his. He
then conquered Yafa [Jaffa] which according to others was
conquered by Mu'awiyah. 'Amr also conquered Rafah and
made similar terms with it.
The conquest of Jerusalem. As 'Amr was besieging
Iliya', s. e., Jerusalem in the year 16, abu-'Ubaidah after
reducing Kinnasrin and its environs, came to him, and ac-
cording to a report, sent him from Jerusalem to Antioch
whose people had violated the covenant. 'Amr reduced the
1 1. *., Samaria; abu-1-Fida, vol. i, p. 160.
■ Athir, vol. ii, p. 300.
* Ya]cut, vol. i, p. :o, line 12.
213
214
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
city and returned [to Jerusalem] . Only two or three days
after his return, the inhabitants of Jerusalem asked to
capitulate to abu-TJbaidah on the same terms as those of
the cities of Syria as regards tax and kharaj, and to have 139
the same treatment as their equals elsewhere, provided the
one to make the contract be 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab in person,
Abu-'Ubaidah communicated this in writing to 'Umar who
came first to al-Jabiyah in Damascus and then to Jerusalem.
He made the terms of capitulation with the people of Jeru-
salem to take effect and gave them a written statement
The conquest of Jerusalem took place in the year 17.
A different account has been reported regarding the con-
quest of Jerusalem.
Al-Kasim ibn-Sallam from Yazid ibn-abi-Habib : —
Khalid ibn-Thabit al-Fahmi was sent by 'Umar ibn-al-
Khattab, who was at that time in al-Jabiyah, at the head of
an army to Jerusalem. After fighting with the inhabitants,
they agreed to pay something on what was within their
fortified city and to deliver to the Moslems all what was
outside. 'Umar came and concurred, after which he re-
turned to al-Madinah.1
Hisham ibn-'Ammar from al-Auza'i: — Abu-'Ubaidah
reduced Kinnasrin and its districts in the year 16; after
which he came to Palestine and camped in Jerusalem, whose
people asked him to make terms with them, which he did
in the year 1 7, with the stipulation that 'Umar would come
in person, put the terms into effect and write a statement of
them to the people.
'Umar welcomed by the people of Adhri'at. Hisham
ibn-'Ammar from 'Abdallath ibn-Kais : — The latter said, " I
was one of those who went with abu-'Ubaidah to meet
'Umar as he was coming to Syria. As 'Umar was passing,
Tabari, vol. i, p. 2360.
PALESTINE 215
he was met by the singers and tambourine players of the in-
habitants of Adhri'at1 with swords and myrtle. Seeing
that, 'Umar shouted ' Keep still ! Stop them I ' But abu-
'Ubaidah replied, ' This is their custom (or some other
word like it), " Commander of the Believers," and if thou
shouldst stop them from doing it, they would take that as
indicating thy intention to violate their covenant.' ' Well,
then, said 'Umar, ' let them go on.' " '
The plague of 'Amawas. The plague of 'Amawas
[Emmaus] occurred in the year 18. To it a great many
Moslems fell victim, among whom was abu-'Ubaidah ibn-
al-Jarrah (who was 58 years old and a commander in the
army) and Mu'adh ibn-Jabal of the banu-Salimah of al-
Khazraj who was surnamed abu-'Abd-ar- Rahman and who
died in the district of al-Ukhuwanah in the province of the
Jordan, aged 38. This Mu&dh, abu-'Ubaidah on his death-
bed had appointed as his successor. According to others he
appointed 'Iy&d ibn-Ghanm al-Fihri. Some others say he
appointed 'Amr ibn-al-Asi who appointed his own son as 140
successor and departed for Egypt. Al-Fadl ibn-al-' Abbas
ibn-'Abd-al-Muttalib, surnamed abu-Muhammad, fell, ac-
cording to some, as martyr in Ajnadin ; but the fact is that
he was a victim to the plague at 'Amawas. Other victims
were Shurahbil ibn-Hasanah, surnamed abu-'Abdallah
(who died 69 years old) ; Suhail ibn-'Amr of the banu-
'Amir ibn-Lu'ai, surnamed abu-Yazid; and al-Harith ibn-
Hisham ibn-al-Mughirah-1-Makhzumi (who, according to
others, fell a martyr in the battle of Ajnadin).
Yazid ibn-abiSufyan governor of Syria. When 'Umar
ibn-al-Khattab received the news of the death of abu-
TJbaidah, he wrote to Yazid ibn-abi-Suf yan appointing him
in his place as governor of Syria, and ordering him to
1 Edrei of Numbers xxi : 33.
216 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE ■
i
invade Kaisariyah [Caesarea]. According to others, how- |
ever, Yazid was appointed by 'Umar as governor of the
Jordan and Palestine; abu-ad-Darda', of Damascus; and
'Ubadah ibn-as-Samit, of Hims.
The conquest of Kaisariyah. Muhammad ibn-Sa*d
from al-Wakidi : — There is difference of opinion regarding
the conquest of Kaisariyah [Caesarea]. Some say
Mu'awiyah subdued it; others, 'Iyad ibn-Ghanm, after the
death of abu-'Ubaidah whose successor he was; and still
others 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi. According to some, 'Amr ibn-
al-'Asi left for Egypt and appointed his son 'Abdallah to
succeed him. The truth in all that, on which scholars agree,
is that the first to lay siege to the city was 'Amr ibn-al-
'Asi who made his descent on it in Jumada I, year 13. 'Amr
would camp around it as long as he could, and whenever the
Moslem forces wanted to combine against their enemy, he
would go to them. Thus he witnessed the battles of
Ajnadin, Fihl, al-Marj, Damascus and al-Yarmuk. He then
returned to Palestine and after taking Jerusalem laid siege
to Kaisariyah. From Kaisariyah he left for Egypt. After
abu-'Ubaidah, Yazid ibn-abi-Sufyan became governor of
Syria, and he appointed his brother to press the siege.
Smitten by the plague, Yazid returned to Damascus where
he died.
Other than al-Wakidi state that 'Umar appointed Yazid
ibn-abi-Sufyan to the governorship of Palestine together
with the other provinces of Syria and ordered him to in-
vade Kaisariyah which had already been besieged. Yazid
went against it with 17,000 men. Its people resisted; and 141
he laid the siege. In the last part of the year 18, he fell ill
and departed for Damascus leaving his brother Mu'awiyah
in his place at Kaisariyah. Mu'awiyah reduced the city x
1 Ya'^ubi, voL ii, p. 173.
PALESTINE 217
and wrote to Yazid to that effect, and the latter communi-
cated the news to 'Umar.
Mu'awiyah nominated governor of Syria. At the death
of Yazid ibn-abi-Sufyan, 'Umar wrote to Mu'awiyah mak-
ing him governor in his [Yazid's] place, upon which abu-
Sufyan thanked 'Umar saying, " May the tie of relationship
be made stronger by thy kind behavior I"
Hisham ibn-'Ammar from Tamim ibn-'Atiyah: — 'Umar
made Mu'awiyah ibn-abi-Sufyan governor of Syria after
Yazid, and appointed with him two men of the Prophet's
Companions for conducting prayer and performing the
duties of kadi : abu-ad-Darda' to act as kadi and to conduct
• • • •
prayer at Damascus and the Jordan, and 'Ubadah to act as
kadi and conduct prayer at Hims and Kinnasrin.
Mu'awiyah besieges Kaisariyah. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd
from al-Wakidi: — When 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab made
Mu'awiyah governor of Syria, the latter besieged Kaisari-
yah until he reduced it, the city having been under siege for
seven years. Its conquest took place in Shauwal, year 19.
Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from 'Abdallah ibn-'Amir: —
Mu'awiyah besieged Kaisariyah until he lost all hope of re-
ducing it. Previous to this, the city had been besieged by
'Amr ibn-al-'Asi and his son. When Mu'awiyah at last
took it by storm, he found in it 700,000 [sic!} soldiers with
fixed stipends, 30,000 Samaritans and 20,000 Jews. He
found in the city 300 markets, all in good shape. It was
guarded every night by 100,000 men stationed on its wall.
The city was reduced in the following way : — A Jew named
Yusuf came to the Moslems at night and pointed out to
them a road through a tunnel the water in which would
reach a man's waist; in consideration for which informa-
tion, safety was guaranteed him and his relatives. Mu'awi-
yah sanctioned the conditions [made to Yusuf] and the
Moslems entered the city by night, calling "Allah is great !"
1
2i8 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
The Greeks seeking to flee through the tunnel found it oc-
cupied by Moslems. The Moslems opened the city gate and
Mu'awiyah with his men went in. Many Arabs were in
the city [as prisoners?]. One of them was a woman,
Shakra', whom Hassan ibn-Thabit referred to when he
said:
"Shaqra says, 'If thou shouldst relinquish wine,
thou wouldst become rich in number/ * "
Others say her name was Sha'tha'. 142
The captives from Kaisariyah. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd
from al-Wakidi: — The prisoners from Kaisariyah
[Caesarea] amounted to 4.000. When Mu'awiyah sent
them to 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab the latter gave orders that
they be settled in al-Jurf. They were then distributed
among the orphans of the Ansar, and some were used as
clerks and manual laborers for the Moslems. The daugh-
ters of abu-Umamah As'ad ibn-Zur&rah, having been given
by abu-Bakr two servants from the prisoners of 'Ain at-
Tamr who were now dead, 'Umar assigned to the daughters
two of the captives of Kaisariyah to take the place of the
two dead servants.
Mu'awiyah forwarded two men of the Judham to carry
the news of the conquest to 'Umar. Fearing that they
might not hasten enough, he forwarded a man of the
Khath'am who exerted all effort in walking by day and by
night repeating :
" The two brothers of Judham have brought insomnia on me,
the brother of ]~Hshm and the brother of ]~faram.
How can I sleep so long as they are ahead of me ?
They are going along and the midday heat is becoming vehementHr
At last he got ahead of them and presented himself before
1 Cf. Hassan ibn-Thabit, Diwan, p. 61 ; al-Mubarrad, al-Kamil, p. 148.
J Tabari, vol. i, p. 2397.
PALESTINE 219
TJmar who, hearing the news of the conquest, exclaimed
"Allah is great!"
Hisham ibn-'Ammar from one whose name I do not re-
member:— Kaisariyah was taken by storm in the year 19.
Hearing the news of its capture, 'Umar exclaimed,
" Kaisariyah is taken by storm. Allah is great 1" and so did
the rest of the Moslems. The city was besieged for seven
years and was finally reduced by Mu'awiyah.
The death of Yazid ibn-abi-Sufyan took place at the end
of the year 18, in Damascus.
The date of the conquest of kaisariyah. Those who
claim that Mu'awiyah reduced Kaisariyah in the days of his
brother believe that it was not reduced before the end of the
year 18; but those who claim that it was reduced while he
was governor of Syria believe that it was reduced in the
year 19. Of the two views, the latter is the tenable one.
According to still other reports, the city was reduced in
the early part of the year 20.
'Askalan reduced. 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab wrote to
Mu'awiyah instructing him to follow up the conquest of
what was left in Palestine. Accordingly, Mu'awiyah con-
quered 'Askalan [Ascalon] which capitulated after some
resistance. According to others, however, it was 'Amr ibn-
al-'Asi who first conquered the city. Later, its inhabitants
violated the covenant and were reinforced by the Greeks.
It was then that Mu'awiyah reduced it, settled garrisons of
cavalry in it and put it in charge of a guard. 143
'Abd-al-Malik makes repairs in 'Askalan, Kaisariyah and
other places. Bakr ibn-al-Haitham from certain sheikhs
of 'Askalan : — The Greeks destroyed 'Askalan and expelled
its inhabitants in the days of ibn-az-Zubair. When 'Abd-
al-Malik ibn-Marwan became ruler, he rebuilt the city and
fortified it, and made repairs in Kaisariyah, too.
Muhammad ibn-Musaffa from abu-Sulaiman ar-Ramli's
220 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
father : — In the days of ibn-az-Zubair the Greeks went out
against Kaisariyah and devastated it and razed its mosque
to the ground. When 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan was
settled in his rule, he made repairs in Kaisariyah, restored
its mosque and left a garrison in it Moreover, he built
Tyre and outer Acre which had shared the same fate as
Kaisariyah.
Sulaimdn ibn-'Abd-al-Malik builds ar-Ramlah. The
following tradition was communicated to me by certain men
well versed in the conditions of Syria: — Al-Walid ibn-
'Abd-al-Malik made Sulaiman ibn-'Abd-al-Malik governor
of the province of Palestine. Sulaiman took up his abode
in Ludd and then founded the city of ar-Ramlah and
fortified it.1 The first thing he built in it was his palace
and the house known as Dar as-Sabbaghin [the house of
the dyers] in the middle of which he made a cistern. He
then planned the mosque and began its construction, but he
became caliph before its completion. After becoming
caliph, he continued its construction which was completed
by 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz who reduced the original plan,
saying, " The inhabitants of ar-Ramlah should be satisfied
with the size thereof to which I have reduced it."
After having erected a house for himself, Sulaiman per-
mitted the people to build their houses, which they did.
He dug for the inhabitants of ar-Ramlah their canal which
is called Baradah, and he dug also wells. The one he
appointed to oversee the expenses of his palace in ar-Ramlah
and of the cathedral mosque2 was one of his clerks, a
certain Christian of Ludd named al-Batrik ibn-an-Naka.s
1 Ar. massara — " to make a city a boundary line between two things f
see an-Nihayah ; Le Strange, p. 303, translates : " made it his capital/9
1 Mukaddasi, p. 164.
1 " Ibn-Baka " in Hamadhani, Buldan, p. 102.
PALESTINE
221
Before Sulaim&n there was no such city as ar-Ramlah, and
its site was sand [Ar. rami].
The Dar as-Sabbaghin passed to the hands of the heirs of
Salih ibn-'Ali ibn-'Abdallah ibn-al-Abbas, because it was
confiscated with the possessions of the banu-Umaiyah.
The expenses of the wells and canal of ar-Ramlah, after
the time of Sulaiman ibn-'Abd-al-Malik, were met by the
banu-Umaiyah. But when the banu-1- Abbas assumed the
caliphate, they paid the expenses. The order for these ex- 144
penses was issued yearly by every caliph ; but when al-Mu'-
tasim became caliph, he gave a permanent decree for these
expenses, thereby doing away with the necessity of issuing
an order every time by the caliph. It became thereafter a
.current expense which the 'dtnils paid and kept an ac-
count of.
"Reduction" and "restoration" in the kharaj. There
are in Palestine special places containing documents from
the caliphs, set aside from the records of the khardj of the
common people and containing a statement of the " reduc-
tion " and " restoration ", the explanation of which is the
following: — Certain estates having been abandoned in the
caliphate of ar-Rashid and deserted by their occupants,
ar-Rashid sent Harthamah ibn-A'yan to cultivate them.
Harthamah asked some of their old tenants and farmers to
go back to them with the understanding that he would
reduce their kharaj and would deal with them more leniently.
Those who went back are those to whom the " reductions "
were made. Others came after that and their old lands were
restored to them. These are the ones to whom the " re-
storations " were made.
Fiefs in 'Askaldn. The following tradition was related
to me by Bakr ibn-al-Haitham : — " I met a man of the
Arabs in 'Askalan who said that his grandfather was one
of those settled in 'Askalan by 'Abd-al-Malik and was given
222 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
a fief in it as one of the garrison of cavalry to whom fiefs
were assigned. He also showed me a piece of land, saying,
'This is one of the fiefs given by 'Uthman ibn-'Affan\ I
heard Muhammad ibn- Yusuf al-F&ryabi * say : — ' Here in
'Askalan are fiefs which were given out by the orders of
'Umar and 'Uthman, and it matters not who takes possession
of them/ "
1 " Firyabi" in Tabari, voL iii, p. 2557.
CHAPTER XII
The Province of Kinnasrin and the cities called
al-'Awasim
ginnasrin capitulates. Abu-'Ubaidah ibn-al-Jarrah,
after being through with al-Yarmuk, went to the province
of Hims and passed from one place to the other examining
it.1 Then he went to Kinnasrin [Chalcis] with Khalid
ibn-al-Walid commanding the van of his army.2 The in-
habitants of the city of Kinnasrin resisted at first, then they
sought refuge in their stronghold and asked to capitulate.
Abu-'Ubaidah made terms with them similar to those of
Hims. Thus the Moslems effected the conquest of the land
of Kinnasrin with its villages. The Hadir* Kinnasrin
had been settled by the Tanukh tribe since they came to
Syria and pitched their tents in it. They later built their 145
houses in it These, abu-'Ubaidah summoned to Islam.
Some of them accepted it, but the banu-Salih ibn-Hulwan
ibn-'Imran ibn-al-Hfifi ibn-Kuda'ah remained Christian.4
Certain sons of Yazid ibn-Hunain at-Ta'i-1-Antaki from
their sheikhs: — A group of men from this IJadir I£in-
nasrin embraced Islam in the caliphate of al-Mahdi who
inscribed on their hands in green color the word "l£in-
nasrin."
1 Ar. istafcr&ha, Caetani, vol. iii, p. 79A translates : " rinovo con gli
abitanti il primitive trattato."
1 Tabari, vol. i, p. 2593.
9 M A place where people alight and take up their abode by a constant
source of water," T. 'A. Cf. Wafcidi, Fut&h, vol. ii, pp. 35-39-
4 Cf. Yafciit, vol. iv, p. 184.
223
224 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Kinnasrin violates the covenant. Thence abu-'Ubaidah
departed bent upon Aleppo [Halab], but hearing that the
people of Kinnasrin had violated the covenant and proved
perfidious, he directed against them as-Simt ibn-al-Aswad
al-Kindi who reduced the city after besieging them.
Hisham ibn-'Ammar ad-Dimashki from 'Abd-ar-Rahman
ibn-Ghanm : — " We kept our post against Kinnasrin with
as-Simt (or, perhaps he said Shurahbil ibn-as-Simt) as our
leader. When he reduced the city, he carried off cows and
sheep as booty. One part of the booty he distributed among
us and the remaining part was treated according to the laws
governing the spoils [Ar. maghnam x]"
The Hadir Taiyi'. The Hadir Taiyi'2 was of old
origin. It dates back to the disastrous war termed Harb
al-Fasad * which tore up the tribe of Taiyi' some of whom
then came and established themselves on the two mountains
[al-Jabalain, i. e.y Aja and Salma]. Under these circum-
stances a large body of the Taiyi' were dispersed over the
country and some came and settled [near Kinnasrin].
When abu-'Ubaidah came to them, some became Moslems
and many made terms agreeing to pay poll-tax, a little after
which they all accepted Islam with the exception of a few.
The Hadir of Aleppo. Close by the city of Aleppo stood
a settlement called the Hadir Halab in which different
Arab tribes including Tanukh lived. Abu-'Ubaidah made
terms with them in which they agreed to pay poll-tax. Later
they embraced Isl&m and lived with their descendants in the
same place until a little after the death of ar-Rashid. The
inhabitants of this Hadir once fought against the people of
1 Mawardi, p. 240 seq.
■ Mushtarik, p. 118.
• In which many atrocities were committed by both parties. See " An-
notations on al-Kdm&s" by Muhammad ibn-at-Taiyib al-Fasi.
KINNASRIN AND ALSAWASIM
22$
the city of Aleppo and tried to drive them out of their city.
The Hashim tribe of the people of Aleppo' wrote to all the
Arab tribes of the vicinity asking for help. The first to
come to their support and aid was al-' Abbas ibn-Zufar
ibn-'Asim al-Hilali (according to his maternal pedigree, be-
cause umm-'Abdallah ibn-al-' Abbas was Lubabah, daughter 146
of al-Harith ibn-Hazn ibn-Bujair ibn-al-Huzam of the
Hilal tribe). The people of that Hadir could not resist
this al-' Abbas and his men. They were therefore expelled
from their Haclir, and that at the time of the insurrection
of Muhammad ibn-ar-Rashid ; and their Hstdir was de-
stroyed. They moved to Kinnasrin whose people met them
with food and clothing. No sooner had they entered the
city, than they attempted to subjugate it and were there-
fore driven out. Thus they were dispersed over the land,
some settling in Takrit (whom I myself have seen) and
others in Armenia and various other regions.
AW Abbas ibn-Zufar in Aleppo. I was told by al-Muta-
wakkil that he heard a sheikh of the banu-SMih ibn-'Ali ibn-
'Abdallah ibn-' Abbas say to al-Mu'tasim, in the year in
which the latter invaded ' Ammuriyah ',x that when al-
' Abbas ibn-Zufar al-Hilali arrived in Aleppo for the support
of the Hashimites, some of their women called him saying,
" Our hope, uncle, is in Allah and in thee !" To this al-
' Abbas answered, " There is no danger, if it be the will of
Allah ; may Allah disappoint me, if I should disappoint you I"
Hiyar bani-l-Ka'kd'. Hiyar bani-1-Ka'ka' was a well-
known town in pre-Islamic time. In it was the stopping
place of al-Mundhir ibn-Ma' as-Sama' al-Lakhmi, the king
of al-Hirah. It was also settled by the banu-1-Ka'ka* ibn-
Khulaid . . . ibn-Baghid, who chose it for their abode and
after whom it was thus called.
1Mushtarik, p. 317; Yak&t, vol. Hi, p. 730.
226 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan had given to al-Ka'ka' a part
of this Hiyar as fief, and to al-l£a'ka's uncle, al-' Abbas
ibn-Jaz' ibn-al-Harith other fiefs which he exempted from
the khardj1 and assessed it on al-Yaman. They were
also exempt after he died. All or most of them were
waste land. The daughter of this al-' Abbas, Walladah,
lived with 'Abd-al-Malik and brought forth al-Walid and
Sulaiman.
Abu-'Ubaidah reduces Aleppo. Abu-'Ubaidah set out for
Aleppo sending before him 'Iya<jl ibn-Ghanm al-Fihri.
(The name of the latter's father was 'Abd-Ghanm; but
when 'Iya<J. accepted Islam, he hated to be called 'Abd-
Ghanm,2 so he said, "I am Tya<J. ibn-Ghanm"). Abu-
'Ubaidah, finding the people in a fortified position, camped
around the city; but no sooner had he done so, than they
sought to capitulate and make terms regarding the safety 147
of their lives, their possessions, city wall, churches, homes
and the fort. All this was granted them with the ex-
ception of a site for the mosque. The one to make the
terms was 'Iya<J; and abu-'Ubaidah sanctioned them.
Some reporters claim that they capitulated, agreeing to
share with the Moslems half of their homes and churches
provided their lives be spared. Others assert that abu-
'Ubaidah found nobody in Aleppo, its inhabitants having
moved to Antioch. From there they agreed in writing with
abu-'Ubaidah on the terms of peace. When the terms
were concluded, they returned to Aleppo.
Antioch reduced by abu-'Ubaidah. Abu-'Ubaidah set
out from Aleppo for Antioch [Antakiyah] in which a large
body of men from the province of Kinnasrin had fortified
themselves. On his arrival at Mahrubah, which lay about
1 Ar. aughara. See Zaidan, vol. ii, p. 133.
1 One of the pre-Islamic gods.
KINNASRtN AND AL-'AWASIM
227
two parasangs from Antioch, the troops of the enemy met
him ; and he dispersed them and forced them to seek refuge
in the city. Abu-'Ubaidah invested the city at all its gates,
most of the army being at the Bib Faris and Bab al-Bahr
[sea gate]. At last they capitulated, agreeing to pay poll-
tax or evacuate the place. Some of them did leave; but
others remained, and to the latter abu-'Ubaidah guaran-
teed safety, assessing one dinar and one jarib [of
wheat] on every adult. Later, they violated the con-
tract, which made abu-'Ubaidah send against them 'Iyad
ibn-Ghanm and Habib ibn-Maslamah, who reduced the city
and made terms identical with the previous ones. Some
say, however, that they violated the contract after abu-
'Ubaidah's return to Palestine. So he sent from Jerusalem
'Amr ibn-al-'Asi who reduced it and returned to Jerusalem
whose people, after a short time, sought to capitulate and
make peace.
A garrison stationed in Antioch. Muhammad ibn-Sahm
al-Antaki from certain sheikhs of the frontier cities: —
Antioch was highly esteemed by 'Umar and 'Uthman.
When it was therefore reduced, 'Umar wrote to abu-
'Ubaidah saying, " Station in Antioch Moslems of strong
determination and good management. Let them be its garri-
son, and never stop their allowances." When he made
Mu'awiyah governor, 'Umar wrote to him something to that 148
effect. Later 'Uthman instructed Mu'awiyah to station in
it troops that would never leave and to assign them fiefs,
which Mu'awiyah did. The following was said by abu-
Sahm, " As a child, while I was standing on the bridge of
Antioch spanning the Orontes [Ar. al-Urunt] I heard an
aged man of Antioch say, ' This piece of land is a fief from
'Uthm&n to certain men that were in the army sent by abu-
'Ubaidah. It was allotted them in the time in which Mu'a-
wiyah was, according to 'Uthman's assignment, the gover-
nor of Syria.' "
228 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Muslim ibn-'Abdallah loses his life. Mu'awiyah ibn-abi-
Sufyan transplanted to Antioch in the year 42 some Per-
sians and others from Ba'labakk, Hims, al-Basrah and al-
Kufah.1 One of those transplanted was Muslim ibn-
'Abdallah, the grandfather of 'Abdallah ibn-Habib ibn-
an-Nu'man ibn-Muslim al-Antaki. This Muslim was killed
•
at one of the gates of Antioch which is known to-day as
Bab Muslim. His death was brought about when the
Greeks started from the coast and set up their camp against
Antioch and one of the " uncircumcised " threw a stone on
Muslim, who was then on the city wall, and killed him.
Seleucia given as fief. According to a tradition communi-
cated to me by certain sheikhs from Antioch, among whom
was ibn-Burd al-Fakih, al-Walid ibn-'Abd-al-Malik gave
as fief to some of the troops of Antioch the land of
Seleucia [ Ar. Salukiyah] lying at the sea-coast. Moreover,
he fixed the tax on a filthur (i. e., jarib) one dinar and one
modius * of wheat. They cultivated the land ; and the terms
were carried into effect. He also built the fort of Seleucia.
Baghrds. The land of Baghras [Pagrae] belonged to
Maslamah ibn-'Abd-al-Malik who gave it as an unalienable
legacy 8 to be used in the cause of righteousness. The same
man owned ' Ain as-Sallaur with its lake and al-Iskandariyah
[Alexandria] which latter passed as fief into the hands of
Raja', a freedman of al-Mahdi, to be inherited by his
[al-Mahdi] sons Mansur and Ibrahim, later to Ibrahim ibn-
Sa'id al-Jauhari, then by purchase to Ahmad ibn-abi-Duwad
al-Iyadi, and lastly to al-Mutawakkil, " the Commander of
the Believers."
1 " Misran " used for the last two localities.
*De Goeje, gloss, to Biblio. Geog. Arab., vol. iv, pp. 353-353; C. H.
Becker, Papyri Schott-Riinhardt, vol. i, p. 31.
• Ar. wa %f.
KINNASRIN AND AL-'AWASIM 22g
Maslatnah gives fiefs to Rabi'ah. According to a tradi-
tion communicated to me by ibn-Burd al-Antaki and others,
certain men of the Rabi'ah tribe were assigned fiefs by
Maslamah ibn-'Abd-al-Malik, which were later confiscated,
passed to al-Ma'mun and put in charge of Salih al-Khazin,
tha proprietor of the "Dar[^Salih]" in Antioch.
Abu-'Ubaidah reduces Ma'arrat Misrin and other places.
Abu-'Ubaidah, hearing that a large body of Greeks were 149
assembled between Ma'arrat Misrin * and Aleppo, met them
and killed many patricians, dispersing the whole army and
carrying away captives and booty. Thus he effected the
conquest of Ma'arrat Misrin and made terms similar to
the terms of Aleppo. His cavalry roamed about until they
got to Buka and reduced the villages of al-Jumah, Sarin in,*
Martahwan * and Tizin.4 The occupants of the convents
of Tabaya 5 and al-Fasilah capitulated, agreeing to entertain
whomever of the Moslems passed by them. The Khu-
nasirah Christians, too, came to abu-'Ubaidah and made
terms. Thus did all the land of Kinnasrin and Antioch
fall into the hands of abu-'Ubaidah. I learnt from al-
' Abbas ibn-Hisham on the authority of his father that the
Khun as i rah were thus called after one, Khunasir ibn-'Amr
ibn-al-Harith al-Kalbi — later al-Kin&ni — who was their
chief.
Butnan Habib was so called after Habib ibn-Maslamah-1-
• • •
Fihri who was sent from Aleppo either by abu-'Ubaidah or
Iy&d ibn-Ghanm to Butnan, where he reduced a fort that
later bore his name.
1 Known also as Ma'arrat Kinnasrin and Ma'arrat Nasrin. Yakut, vol.
*v, p. 574-
■ Ibid., vol. iii, p. 83.
* Laxnmens, MFO, vol. i, p. 242 ; Yakut, vol. iv, p. 487.
4 or Tuzin. Yakut, vol. i, p. 907.
* ? No diacritical points.
230 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
The treaty with Kurus. Abu-'Ubaidah set out bent upon
Ijfamis1 [Cyrrhus], sending at the head of the vanguard
'Iyad. The latter was met by one of the monks of Kurus,
who asked to capitulate on behalf of its people. 'Iyad sent
the monk to abu-'Ubaidah, who was now between Jabrin *
and Tall A'zaz.* Abu-'Ubaidah accepted the capitulation
and proceeded to Kurus where he signed a covenant with its
people, granting them the same rights granted to the people
of Antioch. To the monk, he wrote a special statement re-
garding a village that he owned called Sharkina.* He then
distributed his cavalry and subdued all the province of
Kurus to the end of the frontier of Nikabulus (Nicepholis).
gurus a frontier garrison for Antioch. Kurus was for
Antioch the seat of a garrison that kept watch on the
enemy. To it came every year a detachment 8 from the
Antioch army to act as garrison. Later, one of the f our
divisions into which the army of Antioch was divided • was
moved to it ; and the periodical detachments were no more
sent there.
Salman fort. Salman ibn-Rabi'ah-1-Bahili was in the
army of abu-'Ubaidah, together with abu-Umamah as-Sudai
ibn-'Ajlan, a Companion of the Prophet. This Salman
occupied a fort in Kurus which was called after him Hisn
[fort] Salmin. He then returned from Syria, together
with others, to reinforce Sa'd ibn-abi-Wakkas in al-Trak. 150
According to others, Salman ibn-Rabi'ah had led an invasion
1 Ya'kubi, Buld&n, p. 363 ; Rustah, p. 107.
1 Jibrln or Jibrin Kurastaya. Yajctit, vol. ii, p. 19,
» or Tali 'Aziz. Yifcut, vol. iii, p. 667.
4 The word is uncertain, cf. "Sorqante, Stirkanya" in Lammens,
- Viliagea Y6zidis," MFO, vol. ii, p.' 38a.
* Ar. fali'ah, 1,500-2,000 men who came in spring and returned in
winter.
e Zaidan, vol. i, p. 120.
KINNASRIN AND AL-'AWASIM 23 1
against the Greeks after the conquest of al-'Irak and be-
fore he started for Armenia. On setting out from the dis-
trict of Mar'ash, he encamped near this fort and it was called
after him. This Salman together with Ziyad 1 were among
the Slavs whom Marwan ibn-Muhammad stationed in the
frontier fortresses.9 I heard someone say that this Salman
was a Slav and that the fort was named after him.
Manbij, Duluk and Ra'ban make terms. Abu-'Ubaidah
advanced to JHLalab as-Sajur * and sent before him 'Iyad to
Manbij [Hierapolis]. When abu-'Ubaidah came up to
*Iyad, he found that the people of Manbij had capitulated
on terms similar to those of Antioch. Abu-'Ubaidah
carried the terms into effect and sent 'Iyad ibn-Ghanm to
the region of Duluk and Ra'ban, whose inhabitants capitu-
lated on terms similar to those of Manbij. One condition
imposed on them was that they search for news regarding
the Greeks and forward it in writing to the Moslems. To
every district abu-'Ubaidah conquered, he assigned a 'amil
and sent with him some Moslems. But in the dangerous
places he posted garrisons.
Balis and Kasirin captured. Abu-'Ubaidah proceeded
until he got to 'Arajin.4 The van of the army he sent to
Balis [Barbalissus] ; and to Kasirin he sent an army under
Habib ibn-Maslamah. Balis and Kasirin * belonged to two
brothers of the Greek nobility to whom were given as fiefs
the adjacent villages and who were made guardians of the
Greek towns of Syria that lay between Balis and Kasirin.
When the Moslem armies reached these towns, their inhabi-
1 The one after whom 5isn Ziyad was named; Yakut, vol. ii, p. 276.
* Ar thugh&r; Zaidan, vol. i, pp. 153-155-
* Yakut, vol. i, p. 315 ; M ushtarik, p. 142.
4 Sometimes 'Arshin ; Lammens, MFO, vol. i, p. 240, note 3.
* Yakut, vol. iv, p. 16.
232
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
tants capitulated, agreeing to pay poll-tax or evacuate the
places. Most of them left for the Byzantine Empire,
Mesopotamia and the village of Jisr Manbij [or Kal'at
an-Najm]. At this time there was no bridge [Ar. jisr].
It was first put up for the summer expeditions in the days
of 'Uthman ibn-'Affan. Others claim that it is of ancient
origin.
Abu-'Ubaidah stationed in Balis a body of fighting men
and settled in the city some Arabs, who were in Syria and
who, after the advent of the Moslems to Syria, had accepted
Islam, together with others who were not among the forces
sent to the frontiers, but who had emigrated from the deserts
and belonged to the Kais tribe. In Kasirin, he settled
others who, either themselves or their descendants, refused
to stay in it. Abu-'Ubaidah reached as far as the Euphrates
and then returned to Palestine. 151
Maslamah canal. Balis and the villages attached to it on
its upper, middle, and lower extremities were tithe-lands
watered only by rain. When Maslamah ibn-'Abd-al-Malik
ibn-Marwan led an expedition against the Greeks from the
side of the Mesopotamian frontier fortresses, he camped
at Balis whose inhabitants, together with those of Buwailis,
Kasirin, 'Abidin, and Siffin (which were villages attached
to Balis) came to him, together with the inhabitants of the
upper extremity, and they all asked him to dig for them a
canal from the Euphrates to irrigate their land, agreeing to
offer him one-third of the produce of the land, after taking
away the usual tithe for the government1 Maslamah con-
sented and dug the canal called Nahr Maslamah; and the
people lived up to their promise. Moreover, Maslamah re-
paired and strengthened the city wall. According to others,
Maslamah himself started the idea and proposed the terms.
1 Ar. Sulfdn.
KINNASRtN AND AUAWASIM 233
Balis and its villages as fief. At the death of Maslamah,
Balis with its villages passed into the hands of his heirs, who
held them until the appearance of the " blessed dynasty "
[Abbasid], at which time 'Abdallah ibn-'Ali confiscated the
possessions of the banu-Umaiyah, including Balis and its
villages. Abu-l-'Abbas the " Commander of the Believers/'
assigned Balis and its villages as fief to Sulaiman ibn-'Ali
ibn-' Abdallah ibn-al-' Abbas, from whom they passed to his
son, Muhammad ibn-Sulaiman. Muhammad's brother, Ja'-
far ibn-Sulaiman, repeatedly calumniated his brother to ar-
Rashid, the "Commander of the Believers," stating that he
used to spend many times the income of the possessions and
[crown-] domains he held, for the purpose of attaining his
ambition,1 and upon the slaves and other dependents he kept.
He added that it was legal for the " Commander of the Be-
lievers " to appropriate the money of his brother. These
letters ar-Rashid ordered preserved. Now, when Muham-
mad died, Ja'far's letters were brought out and used as an
argument against him. Muhammad had no other brother
from his father and mother than Ja'far. The latter ac-
knowledged that they were his letters; and so the pos-
sessions passed to ar-Rashid, who gave Balis and its villages
as fief to al-Ma'mun, after whom they passed to his son.
Mu'adh advises against the division of the land. Hisham
ibn-'Ammar from ' Abdall&h ibn-Kais al-Hamdani : — When
'Ulnar ibn-al-Khattab came to al-Jabiyah and wanted to
divide the land among the Moslems, on the ground that it
was taken by force, Mu'adh ibn-Jabal objected saying,
" By Allah, if thou dividest the land, the result will cer-
tainly be unfavorable. The great part will be in the hands
of these people, who will pass away, and the whole will 152
become the possession of one man. Others will come after
1 The caliphate; Athir, vol. vi, p. 82.
234 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
them, who will bravely defend Islam, but find nothing left
Seek therefore some plan that suits those who come first
as well as those who come last" 'Umar acted according
to the suggestion of Mu'adh.
The chief of Busra tells a lie regarding the tax. Al-
Husain ibn-'Ali ibn-al-Aswad al-'Ijli from Salamah-1-
Juhani's uncle : — The chief of Busra recounted that he had
capitulated to the Moslems, agreeing to offer food, oil and
vinegar. 'Umar asked that a statement be written down to
that effect; but abu-'Ubaidah showed that the chief of Busra
was telling an untruth and said, " The fact is that we made
terms by which certain things should be sent to the winter
quarters of the Moslems." Then 'Umar decreed that a poll-
tax be assessed graded according to the various classes,1
and that kharaj be imposed upon the land.
'Umar fixes the tax. Al-Husain from Aslam, a freed-
_^ _____ •
man of 'Umar : — 'Umar wrote to the tax-collectors instruct-
ing them to levy poll-tax only on those who were adult,
and he fixed it at four dinars on those who possessed gold.
He also assessed on them a subsistence tax by which each
Moslem in Syria and Mesopotamia would receive two
modii of wheat, and three kists of oil, and the right to
be entertained as a guest for three days.
The tithe-lands of Syria. Abu-Hafs ash-Shami from
Makhul a : — Every piece of " tithe-land " in Syria is one
whose people had evacuated it, and which had been given as
fief to the Moslems, who, by the permission of the govern-
ors, cultivated it after it had lain as waste land claimed by
no one.
1 De Gocje, Mhnoire, p. rsa
* tf ajar, vol. iii, p. 935.
CHAPTER XIII
Cyprus
The first conquest of Cyprus. According to al-Wakidi
and others, the first expedition against Cyprus was led in
sea by Mu'awiyah ibn-abi-Suf yan. This was the first time
the Moslems sailed in the Mediterranean. Mu'awiyah had
asked 'Uma^s permission to lead a naval expedition, but
'Umar refused.1 When 'Uthm&n ibn-'Affan became caliph,
Mu'awiyah wrote again asking permission to invade Cyprus,
informing him about its proximity and the ease of acquiring
it. In answer to this, 'Uthman wrote, " I have seen the
answer 'Umar gave when thou madest the request from him 153
to lead a sea-expedition." In the year 27, Mu'awiyah again
wrote to 'Uthman, referring to the ease with which the sea
could be crossed to Cyprus. 'Uthman wrote back this time
saying, " If thou sailest with thy wife, we allow thee to do
so; otherwise, not" Accordingly, Mu'awiyah embarked
from Acre with a large number of ships, accompanied by
his wife Fakhitah daughter of Karazah3 ibn-'Abd-'Amr
ibn-Naufal ibn-'Abd-Manaf ibn-Kusai. Likewise, 'Ubadah
ibn-as-Samit took his wife umm-Haram of the An$ar,
daughter of Milhan. This took place in the year 28, after
the cessation of the rainy season ; others say, in the year 29.
When the Moslems arrived in Cyprus and landed on its
shore (Cyprus being an island 80x80 parasangs), its
1 Tabari, vol i, pp. 2820-2821.
* Duraid, p. 55.
235
236 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Archon [Urkun] demanded to make terms of capitulation,
which was considered unavoidable by the people.
Mu'awiyah made terms with them on 7,200 dinars to be
paid annually by them. Similar terms had been made with
them by the Greeks. Thus the people of Cyprus pay two
tributes. It was made a condition that the Moslems would
not prevent them from paying the tribute to the Greeks;
on the other hand the Moslems made it a condition that
they would not fight 1 those who may come after them to
subjugate the Cyprians, and that the Cyprians would keep
the Moslems informed regarding the movement of their
enemy — the Greeks. Thus when the Moslems used to un-
dertake an expedition by sea, they did not molest the
Cyprians. They were not supported by the Cyprians;
nor did the Cyprians support any one against them.
The second invasion by Mu'awiyah. In the year 32, how-
ever, the Cyprians offered ships as an aid to the Greeks in
an expedition in the sea. Consequently, Mu'awiyah in-
vaded them in the year 33 with 500 ships. He took Cyprus
by force, slaughtering and taking prisoners. He then con-
firmed them in the terms that were previously made, and
sent to the island 12,000 men of those whose names were
recorded in the register [Ar. diwdn] a and erected mosques
in it. Moreover, Mu'awiyah transplanted from Ba'labakk
a group of men, and erected a city on the island, whose
inhabitants were assigned special stipends until the death
of Mu'awiyah. His son Yazid, who succeeded him, sent
the troops back and ordered the city destroyed.
According to other reports, the second invasion of Cyprus
by Mu'awiyah was carried out in the year 35.
Why Yazxd withdrew the troops. Muhammad ibn-
Musaffa-1-Himsi from al-Walid: — Yazid ibn-Mu'awiyah
1 Athir, vol. iii, p. 74.
1 And the re tore received stipends ; al-Mutarrizi, ol-Mughrib, p. 187.
CYPRUS 237
was offered a large and considerable sum of money as 154
bribe; and that was why he withdrew the troops from
Cyprus, upon which the Cyprians destroyed their city and
Mosques.
Umm-Haram dies in Cyprus. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd
from 'Abd-as-Salam ibn-Musa's father : — When Cyprus was
invaded for the first time, umm-Haram, daughter of Milhan,
sailed with her husband, 'Ubadah ibn-as-Samit. On their
arrival in Cyprus, she disembarked and was offered a mule
to ride upon. As she was riding, the mule stumbled ; and
she was killed. Her tomb in Cyprus is called " the Tomb
of the Righteous Woman." *
Some of those who took part in the campaign. Among
those who joined the campaign with Mu'awiyah were the
following: — Abu-Aiyub Khalid ibn-Zaid ibn-Kulaib al-
Ansari, abu-ad-Dard&\ abu-Dharr al-Ghifari, 'Ubadah ibn-
as-Samit, Fadalah ibn-'Ubaid al-Ansari, 'Umair ibn-Sa'd
ibn-'Ubaid al-Ansari, Wathilah ibn-al-Aska' al-Kinani,
'Abdallah ibn-Bishr al-Mazini, Shaddad ibn-Aus ibn-Thabit
(a nephew of Hassan ibn-Thabit), al-Mikdad, Ka'b al-
Habr ibn-M&ti* 2 and Jubair ibn-Nufair al-Hadrami.
Mu'awiyah makes permanent peace. Hisham ibn-
'Ammar ad-Dimashki from Saf wan ibn-'Amr : — Mu'awiyah
ibn-abi-Suf y&n personally carried out the invasion of Cyprus
and was accompanied by his wife. Its conquest, effected
by Allah, was complete; and the booty he brought to the
Moslems was great. The raids of the Moslems were re-
peated until Mu'awiyah in his caliphate concluded permanent
terms with the Cyprians to the effect that they pay 7,000
dinars and give advice and warnings to the Moslems re-
garding their enemy, the Greeks. This or something like
it was agreed upon.
1 JRAS, 1897, pp. 81-101.
* Nawawi, p. 523 ; ibn-Kutaibah, Kitdb al-Ma'&rif, p. 219.
238 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
The Cyprians expelled and returned. Al-Walid ibn-
Yazid ibn-' Abd-al-Malik expelled many of the Cyprians to
Syria, because of a charge of suspicion brought against
them. When the Moslems disapproved of the act, Yazid
ibn-al-Walid ibn-'Abd-al-Malik returned them to their home.
In the caliphate of ar-Rashid, an invasion was led against
them by Humaid ibn-Ma'yuf al-Hamdani because of a re-
bellion they had started; and many were carried off as
prisoners. Later they behaved properly towards the Mos-
lems; and, by ar-Rashid's orders, their prisoners were re-
turned.
The tax increased. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from al-
Wakidi : — The terms between Mu'awiyah and the Cyprians
were kept in force until the time of 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-
Marwan who added 1,000 dinars to their tax. That was the
case until the caliphate of 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz who
cancelled the addition. When Hisham ibn-'Abd-al-Malik, 155
however, came to power, he restored it ; and it was kept until
the caliphate of abu-Ja'far al-Mansur, who expressed him-
self as follows : " We shall, above everyone else, do justice
to them, and not enrich ourselves by oppressing them."
Accordingly, he restored the terms made by Mu'awiyah.
'Abd-al-Malik wants to annul the treaty. The following
was communicated to me by certain Syrian scholars and
abu-'Ubaid al-Kasim ibn-Sallam : — During the governorship
of 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Salih ibn-'Ali ibn-' Abdallah ibn-' Abb&s
over the frontier cities [Ar. thughur], the Cyprians started
a rebellion ; and he, therefore, desired to break the covenant
made with them. The canonists were numerous, among
whom were the following whose opinions he sought: al-
Laith ibn-Sa'd, Malik ibn-Anas, Sufyan ibn-'Uyainah,
Musa ibn-A'yan, Isma'il ibn-'Aiy&sh, Yahya ibn-Hamzah,
abu-Ishak al-Fazari, and Makhlad ibn-al-Husain. They all
answered him.
CYPRUS 239
The opinion of al-Laith. The following is a quotation
from the letter of al-Laith ibn-Sa'd : " The Cyprians are
being constantly charged by us with infidelity to Moslems
and loyalty to Allah's enemies, the Greeks. Allah himself
has said : x * Or if thou fear treachery from any people, cast
off their treaty in like manner.' He did not say, 'cast not off
their treaty until thou art sure of their treachery.' I, there-
fore, consider it best that thou castest off their treaty and
givest them a respite of one year for enforcing the law.
Those of them who desire to go and settle in a Moslem
land and become dhimmis, paying the khardj, may do so;
those who desire to emigrate to the land of the Greeks may
do so ; and those who desire to remain in Cyprus, with the
understanding they are hostile, may do so and be considered
an enemy to be fought and attacked. To give them a re-
spite of one year would be enough to refute any protest
they may make, and to prove our loyalty to the covenant."
The opinion of Malik. The following statement was
written by Malik ibn-Anas : — " Our peace with the Cyprians
is of old standing and carefully observed [ ? Ar. mutazahar]
by the governors placed over them, because they considered
the terms a humiliation and belittlement to the Cyprians,
and a source of strength to the Moslems, in view of the
tax paid to them and the chance they had of attacking their
enemy. Yet I know of no governor who broke their terms
or expelled them from their city. I, therefore, consider it
best to hesitate in breaking their covenant and casting off
their treaty until the evidence [of disloyalty] is well estab-
lished against them, for Allah says : 2 ' Observe, therefore,
the engagement with them through the whole time of
their treaty.' If, after that, they do not behave properly and 156
abandon their deceit, and thou art convinced of their perfidy,
1 Kor- 8: 6a * Kor., 9:4.
240
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
then thou mayest attack them. In that case, the attack
would be justified and would be crowned with success; and
they would suffer humiliation and disgrace, by Allah's will."
The opinion of Sufyan ibn-'Uyainah. This is what
Sufyan ibn-'Uyainah wrote : " We know of no one who
made a covenant with the Prophet and violated it, without
having the Prophet consider it legal to put him to death,
except the people of Makkah. Their case was a favor on
the part of the Prophet. Their violation consisted in ren-
dering aid to their allies against the Khuza'ah, the Prophet's
allies. One of the terms stipulated against the people of
Najran was not to practise usury; but when they did prac-
tise it, 'Umar decreed that they be expelled. Thus by ' the
consensus of opinion ' [Ar. ijtnd'], he who violates a cove-
nant forfeits the right of being entitled to security."
The opinion of Musa ibn-A'yan. Musa ibn-A'yan
wrote : — " Similar cases took place in the past, but in each
case the governors would grant a period of respite ; and so
far as I know, none of the early men ever broke a covenant
with the Cyprians or any other people. It may be that
the common people and the mass among the Cyprians had
no hand in what their leaders did. I, therefore, consider
it best to abide by the covenant and fulfil the conditions
thereof, in spite of what they have done. I have heard
al-Auza'i say regarding the case of some, who, after mak-
ing terms with the Moslems, conveyed information about
their secret things and pointed them out to the 'unbelievers' :
' If they are dhimmis, they have thereby violated their cove-
nant and forfeited their claim on security, making it right
for the governor to kill or crucify them, if he so desires;
but if they had been taken by capitulation and are not en-
titled to the Moslem's security, then the governor would cast
off their treaty, for Allah loveth not the machinations of the
deceivers.' x "
1 Cf. Kor., 12 : 52.
CYPRUS 24I
Istnd'il ibttr-'Aiy ash's opinion. The following is what
Isma'il ibn-'Aiyash wrote : " The people of Cyprus are humi-
liated and oppressed and they are subjugated, together with
their wives, by the Greeks. It is therefore proper for us to
defend and protect them. In the covenant of the people of
Taflis, Habib ibn-Maslamah wrote, ' In case something
should arise to divert the attention of the Moslems from
you and some enemy should subjugate you, that would not
be a violation of your covenant, so long as ye keep loyal to
the Moslems/ I, therefore, consider it best that they be left
on their covenant and the security promised them, especially
because when al-Walid ibn-Yazid expelled them to Syria, the
Moslems considered the act outrageous, and the canonists
disapproved of it ; so much so that when Yazid ibn-al-Walid
ibn-'Abd-al-Malik came to power, he restored them to
Cyprus, which act was approved of by the Moslems and
considered just"
Yahya ibn-Hamzah 's opinion. The following was the
statement issued by Yahya ibn-Hamzah : " The case of
Cyprus is parallel to that of 'Arbassus * in which it has a 157
good example and a precedent to be followed. This is the
case of 'Arbassus : 'Umair ibn-Sa'd once came to 'Umar ibn-
al-Khattab saying, ' There lies between us and the Greeks a
city called 'Arbassus, whose people disclose to our enemy
our secrets, but do not disclose to us our enemy's.' 'Umar
replied, ' When thou goest there, propose to give them for
every ewe they possess two; for every cow, two; and for
everything, two. If they consent, give that to them, expel
them from the city and raze it to the ground. But if they
refuse, then cast off their treaty to them and give them
one year at the expiration of which thou mayest destroy the
city/ 'Umair went to the city ; and its people refused the
1 Yakut, vol. iii, p. 633.
242
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
offer. He, therefore, gave them one year at the expiration
of which he destroyed it. The people of 'Arbassus had a
covenant similar to that of the people of Cyprus. To leave
the Cyprians on the terms made with them and to have the
Moslems use in their own cause what they receive [as tax]
from the Cyprians is preferable. All holders of covenant,
for the sake of whom the Moslems are not supposed to fight
and on whom the Moslem regulations are not binding, are
not dhimmis but ' people of tribute ' 1 to be spared so long as
they are worthy, to be treated according to the covenant so
long as they abide by it and consent to it, and to be forgiven
so long as they pay their dues. It is reported that Mu'adh
ibn-Jabal always hated to have the enemy capitulate on defi-
nite terms unless the Moslems were by the force of circum-
stances compelled to make terms, because no one could tell
whether such capitulation would be of value and strength
for the Moslems."
The opinion of abu-Ishak and Makhlad. Abu-Ishak al-
Fazari and Makhlad ibn-al-Husain wrote as follows: —
" We can find nothing more similar to the case of Cyprus
than the case of 'Arbassus and the decision of 'Umar ibn-
al-Khattab regarding it. 'Umar gave them two alterna-
tives to choose from : a double fold of what they possessed
and the evacuation of the city, or a respite of one year after
casting off their treaty. Having rejected the former propo-
sition, they were given one year at the end of which the
city was destroyed. Al-Auza'i repeated a tradition to the
effect that when Cyprus was conquered, the status quo of
the people was kept, and terms were made on 14,000 dinars
of which 7,000 should go to the Moslems and 7,000 to the
Greeks ; and it was stipulated that the Cyprians should not
1 Ar. ahl fidyah, who are governed by their own laws and pay some-
thing to be let alone. For fidyah see at-Tahanawi, Kashf Istildhdt «f-
Fun&n, vol. ii, p. H57-
CYPRUS 243
disclose to the Greeks the condition of the Moslems.1 Al-
Auza'i used to say, ' The Cyprians did not abide by the
terms they made with us.' But we consider them as
'people bound to us by covenant/ whose terms of peace
involve rights to them and obligations on them, and the 158
violation of which is legal only if they do some thing that
shows their perfidy and treachery/'
1 Evidently there is a mistake in the text. The negative particle "/a"
is superfluous. '"
CHAPTER XIV
The Samaritans
The terms made by abu-'Ubaidah. Hisham ibn-'Ammar
from Saf wan ibn-' Amr : — Abu-'Ubaidah ibn-al-Jarrah
made terms with the Samaritans in the provinces of the
Jordan and Palestine, who acted as spies and guides for the
Moslems, stipulating that they pay tax on their persons but
nothing on their lands. When Yazid ibn-Mu'awiyah, how-
ever, assumed power he assessed kharaj on their lands.
The tax imposed by Yazxd. I was informed by certain
men well versed in the conditions of the Jordan and
Palestine that Yazid ibn-Mu'awiyah assessed kharaj on the
lands of the Samaritans in the Jordan, and levied on every
man two dinars as poll-tax. He also assessed kharaj on
their lands in Palestine and levied five dinars on every man.
Sects. The Samaritans are Jews and are divided into
two classes, one is called ad-Dustan [Dositheans] and the
other al-Kushan.1
Their lands become crown-land. There was in Palestine
in the early part of the caliphate of ar-Rashid a devastating
plague which in some cases would attack all the members of
a household. As a result, their land was rendered waste and
useless. Ar-Rashid put it in charge of some who culti-
vated it and [by gifts] attracted the farmers and tenants
into it, thus making it crown domains. In these places the
1 Cf. Al-Makrizi, al-Khifaf, vol. iv, p. 371 ; The Jewish Encyclopaedia,
s. v. "Samaritans"; J. A. Montgomery, History of the Samaritans,
p. 253 seq. ; De Sacy, Chrestom., vol. i, pp. 305, 341-344-
244
THE SAMARITANS
245
Samaritans lived. One of those villages called Bait-
Mama, which lay in the district of Nabulus and whose in-
habitants were Samaritans, made a complaint in the year 246
to the effect that they were poor and unable to pay the
five-dinar khardj, upon which al-Mutawakkil gave orders
that it be reduced again to three.
Mu'awiyah spares the hostages. Hisham ibn-'Ammar
from Safwan ibn-'Amr and Sa'id ibn-' Abd-al-'Aziz : — 159
The Greeks made peace with Mu'awiyah with the stipula-
tion that he pay them a certain sum of money. Mu'awiyah
took hostages from them and held them in Ba'labakk.
The Greeks proved perfidious to Mu'awiyah, but still the
Moslems did not consider it legal to put the hostages in
their hands to death; and so they set them free, saying,
" Loyalty against perfidy is better than perfidy against per-
fidy." According to Hisham, al-Auza'i, among other au-
thorities, maintains the same view.
CHAPTER XV
Al-Jarajimah
The treaty with al-Jarajimah. I am informed by certain
sheikhs from Antioch that al-Jarajimah l were the inhabi-
tants of a town called al-Jurjumah 2 lying between Baiyas
and Buka on mount al-Lukam [Amanus] near Ma'din az-
Zaj [vitriol pit]. While the Greeks held the authority over
Syria and Antioch, the Jarajimah were under the rule of the
patrician and governor of Antioch. When abu-'Ubaidah
came and reduced Antioch, they confined themselves to their
city and, in their anxiety to save their lives, they tried to
go and join the Greeks. The Moslems took no note of them,
nor did any one call their attention to them. When later
the people of Antioch violated their covenant and acted
treacherously, abu-'Ubaidah sent and conquered Antioch
once more, after which he made Habib ibn-Maslamah-1-
Fihri its governor. Habib attacked al-Jurjumah, whose
people did not resist but immediately sought for peace and
capitulation. Terms were made providing that al-Jarajimah
would act as helpers to the Moslems, and as spies and
frontier garrison in Mount al-Lukam. On the other hand
it was stipulated that they pay no tax, and that they keep
for themselves the booty3 they take from the enemy in
case they fight with the Moslems. In these terms were in-
1 Less correctly Jurajimah. They are identical with the Mardaites;
Lammens, MFO, vol. i, p. 17.
1 Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. i, s. v., "Djaradjimaw.
8 Ar. nati. Sec Mutarrizi, p. 80.
246
AL- JARAJIMAH 247
eluded besides the Jarajimah all those who lived in their city,
as well as the merchants, employees and dependents, whether
Nabateans or not, together with the inhabitants of the
villages. These were called " ar-Rawadif " x because they
were included in the terms with the Jarajimah though not
of their number. Others say they were so called because
they came riding behind al- Jarajimah when the latter pre-
sented themselves in the Moslem camp. On certain occa-
sions, al- Jarajimah acted properly with respect to the
[Moslem] governors; but on others, they deviated from
the right path and held friendly communications with the 160
Greeks.
'Abd-al-Malik agrees to pay them a certain sum. In the
days of ibn-az-Zubair, when Marwan ibn-al-Hakam died
and 'Abd-al-Malik, who was appointed by Marwan as heir-
apparent, wished to succeed Marwan in the caliphate and
was ready to leave for al-'Irak to fight against al-Mus'ab
ibn-az-Zubair, certain Greek horsemen went forth to Mt. al-
Lukam under a Greek leader and started for the Lebanon,
after having been joined by a large body of al- Jarajimah,
Nabateans, and runaway slaves once possessed by the Mos-
lems. Under these conditions, 'Abd-al-Malik had to make
terms with them, agreeing to pay 1,000 dinars per week.
He also made terms with the Greek " tyrant," agreeing to
pay him a sum of money, because 'Abd-al-Malik was too
busy to fight against him, and because he feared that in case
the " tyrant " came to Syria, he might overpower him.
In this, he followed the precedent of Mu'awiyah who, being
engaged in the fight in al-'Irak, agreed to pay something to
them [the Greeks], and took hostages from them, whom
he held in Baiabakk. All this synchronized with the attempt
made by 'Amr ibn-Sa'id ibn-al-'Asi to secure the caliphate
1 Followers, dependents.
248 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
and his closing the gates of Damascus immediately after
'Abd-al-Malik had left the city, which made 'Abd-al-Malik
still more busy. This took place in the year 70.
Suhaim slays the Greek general After that, 'Abd-al-
Malik sent to the Greek leader Suhaim ibn-al-Muhajir
who, in disguise and through gentle behavior, succeeded in
reaching him. Suhaim played the act of a friend and won
the favor of the leader by censuring 'Abd-al-Malik, curs-
ing him and dwelling on his weak points ; so much so that
the leader put full confidence in Suhaim and was wholly
deceived. At the favorable moment, however, Suhaim fell
upon him with a band of troops and freedmen of 'Abd-al-
Malik, who had been previously prepared for the attack and
stationed in a convenient place, and killed him together with
the Greeks who were with him. Suhaim thereupon an-
nounced publicly a promise of security to those who had
joined the Greek leader. Accordingly, the Jarajimah were
partly scattered among the villages of Hims and Damascus ;
but the majority returned to their city on al-Lukam. In
like manner, the Nabateans returned to their villages, and
the slaves to their masters.
Maimun al-Jurjumani. One of these slaves was Maimun
al-Jurjumani, a Greek slave, who belonged to the banu-umm-
al-Hakam (umm-al-Hakam being the sister of Mu'awiyah
ibn-abi-Sufyan) who were of the tribe of Thakif. The
slave was named after al- Jarajimah, because he mixed with
them and rebelled with them in Mt. Lebanon. Hearing 161
of his strength and valor, 'Abd-al-Malik asked his masters
to set him free, which they did. He was then put by 'Abd-
al-Malik at the head of a regiment of troops and stationed
at Antioch. With 1 ,000 men from Antioch, he and Masla-
mah ibn-' Abd-al-Malik led an invasion to at-Tuwanah.1
1 Yakut, vol. iii, p. 554.
AL-JARAJIMAH 249
After fighting valiantly and standing gallantly, he fell a
martyr. This so much grieved 'Abd-al-Malik that he sent
a large army against the Greeks to avenge his death.
Al-Walxd makes terms with them. In the year 89, al-
Jarajimah gathered themselves into their city and were
joined by a host of Greeks from Alexandretta [Iskan-
darunah] and Rusis.1 Consequently, al-Walid ibn-'Abd-
al-Malik sent against them Maslamah ibn-'Abd-al-Malik,
who fell upon them with a host of Moslems and reduced
their city on the following terms : Al-Jarajimah may settle
wherever they wished in Syria, each one of them receiving
eight dinars, and each family receiving the fixed provisions
of wheat and oil, i. e., two modii of wheat and two kists
of oil; neither they nor any of their children or women
should be compelled to leave Christianity; they may put on
Moslem dress; and no poll-tax may be assessed on them,
their children or women. On the other hand, they should
take part in the Moslem campaigns and be allowed to keep
for themselves the booty from those whom they kill in a
duel; and the same amount taken from the possession of
the Moslems should be taken [as tax] from their articles of
trade and from the possessions of the wealthy among them.
Then Maslamah destroyed their city and settled them in Mt.
al-Huwar, Sunh al-Lulun [ ?] and 'Amk Tizin. Some of
them left for Hims. The patrician of al-Jurjumah accom-
panied by a body of men, after taking up his abode in An-
tioch fled to the Byzantine Empire.
Al-lVdthik cancels the poll-tax. When a certain 'amil
held al-Jarajimah of Antioch responsible for poll-tax, they
brought their case before al-Wathik-Billah at the time of
his caliphate, and he ordered it cancelled.
Al-Mutawakkil levies tax. I was informed by a writer
1 Yakut, vol. ii, p. 840.
250 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
in whom I have full confidence that al-Mutawakkil ordered
that poll-tax be levied on these Jarajimah and that the regu-
lar allowance for food be given them, because, among other
things, they were of value in the frontier garrisons.
Al-Jarajimah molest the summer expeditions. It is
claimed by abu-1-Khattab al-Azdi that in the days of 'Abd-
al-Malik, the people of al-Jurjumah used to make razzias
against the villages of Antioch and al-1 Amk ; and whenever 162
the summer expedition was carried out, al- Jarajimah would
cut off those who lagged behind or followed, together with
any whom they could cut off at the rear of the army. They
went so far against the Moslems that, by 'Abd-al-Malik's
orders, certain people from Antioch and some Nabateans
were given stipends, placed as garrisons and set behind
the armies of the summer expeditions in order to repel al-
Jarajimah from the rear. Therefore those set behind the
armies of the summer expedition were called rawddif, i. e.,
followers, and to every one of them eight dinars were as-
signed. The former account is more authentic.
Az-Zutt. Abu-Hafs ash-Shami from Makhul: —
• • • •
Mu'awiyah transplanted in the year 49 or 50 to the sea-
coast some of the Zutt and Sayabijah * of al-Basrah, and
made some of them settle in Antioch. According to abu-
Haf s, there is in Antioch a quarter known by the name of
az-Zutt. Some of their descendants are in Buka in the pro-
vince of Antioch and are known by the name of az-Zutt.
Some of the Zutt of as-Sind2 were carried by Muhammad
ibn-al-Kasim to al-Haj jaj, who sent them to Syria, and were
later transplanted by al-Walid ibn-'Abd-al-Malik to Antioch.
Lebanon rebels. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from al-Wakidi : —
• •
1 Kamil, p. 41, line 3; p. 82, line 17; De Goeje, MSmoires sur les Mi-
grations des Tsiganes, pp. 1-32, 86-91.
3 IJaukal, p. 226.
AL-JARAJIMAH 2$I
Some people in Lebanon rebelled, complaining of the col-
lector of the kharaj of Ba'labakk. This made Salih ibn-
'Ali ibn-'Abdallah ibn-' Abbas send against them troops who
destroyed their fighting power, and the rest were allowed to
retain their [Christian] faith. Salih sent the latter back to
their villages and expelled some of the natives of Lebanon.
Al-Kasim ibn-Sallam related to me on the authority of Mu-
hammad ibn-Kathir that Salih received a long communica-
tion from al-Auza'i, of which the following extract has been
preserved : " Thou hast heard of the expulsion of the dhim-
mis from Mt. Lebanon, although they did not side with
those who rebelled, and of whom many were killed by thee
and the rest returned to their villages. How didst thou then
punish the many for the fault of the few and make them
leave their homes and possessions in spite of Allah's de-
cree : x * Nor shall any sinning one bear the burden of an-
other/ which is the most rightful thing to abide by and fol-
low ! The command worthy of the strictest observance and
obedience is that of the Prophet who says, 'If one oppresses
a man bound to us by covenant and charges him with more
than he can do, I am the one to overcome him by argu-
ments/ " 2 To this he added other citations.
The frontier and littoral towns fortified. Muhammad
ibn-Sahm al-Antaki from abu-Ishak al-Fazari : — The banu- 163
Umaiyah used to direct their summer and winter campaigns
against the Greeks beyond the frontier cities of Syria and
Mesopotamia by means of Syrians and Mesopotamians, and
they used to station the ships for the invasion and to post the
guard on the coast, giving up or delaying the invasion at the
time in which the enemy was strong and wide awake [ ?] .
When abu-Ja'far al-Mansur began his rule, he examined the
1 Kor., 6 : 164.
2As-Suyuti, Kans al-Umm&l, I, 270.
252
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
forts and cities of the coast, peopled and fortified them, and
rebuilt those of them that were in need of being rebuilt
The same thing he did with the frontier cities. When al-
Mahdi became caliph, he carried the work in the remaining
cities and forts to completion and strengthened the garrisons.
Mu'awiyah ibn-'Amr states, " What we saw of the efforts
of Harun the ' Commander of the Believers ' in conducting
invasions, and of his penetrating insight in carrying on the
holy war was really great. The industries he established
were not established heretofore. He distributed possessions
in the frontier and coast cities. He brought distress on the
Greeks and humiliated them." Caliph al-Mutawakkil or-
dered in the year 247 that ships be stationed on all the sea-
coast and that garrisons be posted on it.
CHAPTER XVI
The Frontier Fortresses x of Syria
Moslem razzias beyond the frontiers. I was informed
by certain sheikhs from Antioch and by others that in the
days of 'Umar and 'Uthman, and after their time, the
frontier cities of Syria included Antioch and other cities
called later al-'Awasim by ar-Rashid. The Moslems used
to lead their raids beyond these cities as they now raid what
is beyond Tarsus. Between Alexandretta and Tarsus lay
Greek forts and frontier garrisons, similar to those through
which the Moslems now pass, and the inhabitants of which
would sometimes, because of fear, leave them and flee to the
Byzantine Empire, and sometimes, Byzantine fighters
would be brought and stationed in them. It is said that
when Heraclius left Antioch, he joined to himself the peo-
ple of these towns, so that the Moslems might not be able to
go between Antioch and the land of the Byzantines through
a cultivated land.
Ibn-Taibun * al-Baghrasi from certain sheikhs : — The lat-
ter said, " What is known to us is that Heraclius moved the 164
men from these forts, which he shattered. So, when the
Moslems made their raids, they found them vacant. In
certain cases the Greeks would make an ambush by these
forts and take by surprise those of the army who were held
back or cut off. Thus the leaders of the summer and win-
ter campaigns, on entering the Greek land, would leave
heavy troops in these forts until their return."
1 Ar. thughUr; see Istakhri, pp. 55-56.
' ? Lacking in diacritical points.
253
254 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
The first to pass through ad-Darb. Regarding the first
one to cross ad-Darb,1 i. e., Darb Baghras 2 there is a dis-
agreement. Some assert that the first was Maisarah ibn-
Masruk al-'Absi who was despatched by abu-'Ubaidah ibn-
al-Jarrah and who met a host of Greeks accompanied by the
" naturalized " [tnusta'ribah] Arabs of the Ghassan, Ta-
nukh and Iyad, trying to follow Heraclius [in Asia Minor].
Maisarah fell upon them and wrought a bloody massacre
among them. He was later joined by Malik al-Ashtar an-
Nakha'i sent as a reinforcement by abu-'Ubaidah from An-
tioch.
According to others, the first to cross ad-Darb was
'Umar ibn-Sa'd al-Ansari, when he was sent in connection
with the case of Jabalah ibn-al-Aiham.
According to abu-1-Khattab al-Azdi, abu-'Ubaidah him-
self led the summer expedition passing through al-Massi-
sah and then through Tarsus whose people, together with
those of the fortified cities lying beyond, had evacuated
their places. Thus abu-'Ubaidah entered the land of the
[Greek] enemy and carried his campaign as far as Zandah.
According to others, abu-'Ubaidah did not himself go, but
sent Maisarah ibn-Masruk, who reached as far as Zandah.
Mu'awiyah and the forts. Abu-Salih al-Farra' from one
supposed by him to have been 'Ubadah ibn-Nusai : — When
Mu'awiyah in the year 25 invaded 'Ammuriyah [Amo-
rium], he found the forts between Antioch and Tarsus all
vacant. He therefore left in those forts some men from
Syria, Mesopotamia and Kinnasrin until he had finished
his expedition. One or two years later, he sent Yazid ibn-
al-Hurr al-'Absi at the head of the summer expedition and
1 " Gr. Derbe near the Cilician gates which were the chief mountain
pass from the direction of the countries occupied by the Arabs into the
territory of the Greeks" — Lane. See Caetani, vol. iii, p. 805.
* Perhaps Bail an pass of to-day.
THE FRONTIER FORTRESSES OF SYRIA 255
instructed him to do the same thing, which Yazid did. All
the governors used to do the same.
The same authority says, " I read in the book of Ma-
ghazi Mu'dwiyah [Mu'awiyah's campaigns] that Mu-
'awiyah in the year 3 1 led an invasion setting out from near
al-Massisah and penetrating as far as Darauliyah. On his
return, he destroyed all the fortresses [belonging to the 165
Greeks] between the latter place and Antioch.
Al-Massisah. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from al-Wakidi and
• • • • •
others : — In the year 84, 'Abdallah ibn-'Abd-al-Malik ibn-
Marwan led the summer campaign, entered through the
Darb Antakiyah and reached al-Massisah [Mopsuestia],
where he rebuilt the fort on its old foundations. In this city,
he caused troops to settle, among whom were 300 chosen
from those known to be among the most valorous and
strong. The Moslems had. never lived in this town before.
He also built a mosque in it over Tall al-Hisn [the hill of
the fort], and then led his army to the invasion of'Sinan
fort, which he reduced. He then sent Yazid ibn-Hunain
at-Ta'i-1-Antaki who led an incursion and returned.
• • •
Abu-1-Khattab al-Azdi holds that the first Moslem to
build the fort of al-Massisah * was 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-
• • •
Marwan through his son 'Abdallah in the year 84 on its
old foundation. Its building and manning were completed
in the year 85. In this fortified town stood a church which
was converted mto a granary. The troops [Ar. tawdli']
from Antioch, numbering 1,500-2,000, used to go up to it
every year and spend the winter in it, at the end of which
they would leave.
When 'Umar ibn-' Abd-al-' Aziz came to the granary of
al-Massisah, he wanted to destroy the town together with
the forts that lay between it and Antioch saying, " I hate
1 Hamadhani, p. 112.
256 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
to see the Greeks besieging its people." When he, how-
ever, learned that the town was built to check the Greek ad-
vance on Antioch, and that, in case it was destroyed, noth-
ing would remain to stop the enemy from taking Antioch,
he desisted and erected for its people a cathedral mosque
in the Kaf arbaiya quarter. In the mosque, he made a cis-
tern whereon his name was inscribed. In the caliphate of
al-Mu'tasim-Billah, the mosque, which was called Mas j id
al-Hisn [the fort mosque], fell into ruins.
Hisham ibn-'Abd-al-Malik built the part outside the city
wall [ Ar. rabad] ; and Marwan ibn-Muhammad built, to the
east of Jaihan,1 al-Khusus [wood houses], around which
he erected a wall with a wooden gate, and dug a moat.
When abu-1-' Abbas became caliph, he assigned stipends
for 400 men to be added to the garrison at al-Massisah, and
distributed fiefs among them. When al-Mansur became 166
caliph, he assigned stipends for 400 men at al-Massisah.
In the year 139, al-Mansur ordered that the city of
al-Massisah, the wall of which had become shattered
by earthquakes and whose population within the walls had
become few in number, be well populated. Accordingly, in
the year 140, he built the wall of the city, made its inhabi-
tants settle in it and called it al-Ma'murah. Moreover, al-
Mansur erected a cathedral mosque in it on the site of a
heathen temple, and made it many times the size of the
mosque of 'Umar. Al-Ma'mun enlarged the mosque in the
governorship of 'AbdaMh ibn-Tahir ibn-al-Husain over al-
Maghrib. Al-Mansur assigned stipends for 1,000 men
of its inhabitants. Besides, he transplanted [into it] the
inhabitants of al-Khusus, who were Persians, Slavs and
Christian Nabateans — all of whom were settled in al-
Khusus by Marwan — gave them in it lots marked for dwell-
1 Pyramus river.
THE FRONTIER FORTRESSES OF SYRIA 257
ings in exchange for and of the same measure as their
old homes, pulled down their old dwellings and helped them
to build the new ones. To these soldiers, who received sti-
pends, al-Mansur gave fiefs and dwellings.
When al-Mahdi became caliph, he assigned stipends for
2,000 men at al-Massisah but gave them no fiefs, because
the city was already manned with troops and volunteers.
The periodical contingents [tawdW] used to come from
Antioch every year until the city was governed by Salim
al-Barallusi, who assigned in their place * stipends for 500
fighters, making a special rate of 10 dinars for each. Thus
the people of the city were multiplied and strengthened.
This took place when al-Mahdi held the caliphate.
Muhammad ibn-Sahm from the sheikhs of the frontier
region : — In the days of the " blessed dynasty ", the Greeks
pressed the inhabitants of al-Massisah so hard that they left
the city. After that Salih ibn-'Ali sent to it Jabril ibn-
Yahya-1-Bajali who peopled it and made Moslems settle in
it in the year 140. Ar-Rashid 2 built Kaf arbaiya ; but ac-
cording to others it was begun in the caliphate of al-Mahdi,
and ar-Rashid changed the plan of its construction and for-
tified it with a moat. Its inhabitants complained to al-
Ma'mun concerning the rent * paid for the houses therein,
and he abolished it. The houses were like inns. By order
of al-Ma'mun, a wall was commenced around the city and
raised high, but not completed before his death. Al-Mu-
'tasim-Billah ordered that the wall be finished and raised to
its proper height.
Al-Muthakkab. Al-Muthakkab 4 was fortified by Hisham
1 Read maudi'aha in place of maudi'ahu.
1 Mas'udi, vol. viii, p. 295.
* Ar ghallah, t. e.f rent due for houses built on the state property.
4 Istakhri, p. 63; tJaukal, p. 121.
258 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
ibn-'Abd-al-Malik who entrusted the work to Hassan ibn-
Mahawaih al-Antaki. As the moat was being dug, a leg-
bone of extraordinary length was found and sent to Hi-
sham. 167
Katarghash, Murah and Baghras. Hisham also had
Katarghash fort built by 'Abd-al-'Aziz ibn-Haiyan al-
Antaki. He also had Murah fort erected by a man from
Antioch. This last fort was built because the Greeks had
interfered with one of his messengers at Darb al-Lukam
near al-'Akabah-l-Baida. In this fort, he stationed forty
men and a body of al-Jarajimah. In Baghras [Pagrae], he
established a garrison of fifty men and built a fort for it.
Hisham, moreover, built the Buka fort in the province of
Antioch, which was recently renewed and repaired.
After the Greeks had made a raid on the littoral of the
province of Antioch in the caliphate of al-Mu'tasim-Billah,
a fort was built on that littoral bv Muhammad ibn-Yusuf
al-Marwazi, surnamed abu-Sa'id.
'Umar intends to destroy al-Massisah. Da'ud ibn-'Abd-
al-Hamid, the kadi of ar-Rakkah, from a grandfather of
his : — 'Umar ibn-' Abd-al-'Aziz intended to destroy al-Mas-
sisah and move its inhabitants because they suffered so
much from the Greeks ; but he died before he could accom-
plish it.
'Akabat an-Nisa. I was informed by certain men from
Antioch and Baghras that when Maslamah ibn-'Abd-al-
Malik invaded 'Ammuriyah, he took his wives with him;
and other men in his army did the same. The banu-Umaiyah
used to do that in order to infuse enthusiasm in the army
by making them jealous for their harem. As Maslamah
was passing through 'Akabat * Baghr&s on a narrow road
that bordered on a valley, a stretcher in which a woman was
carried fell down to the foot of the mountain. This made
1 A place difficult of ascent.
THE FRONTIER FORTRESSES OF SYRIA 259
Maslamah order that all women should go on foot. So
they did ; and that 'Akabat was, therefore, called " ' Aka-
bat an-Nisa' " [the women's 'Akabat]. Previous to this,
al-Mu'tasim had built on the edge of that road a low stone
wall.
The roads of Antioch cleared of lions by means of
buffaloes. It was stated by abu-an-Nu'man al-Antaki that
the road between Antioch and al-Massisah was frequented
by lions which molested the passers-by. When al-Walid
ibn-'Abd-al-Malik came to rule, the complaint was made to
him, and he sent 4,000 buffaloes by which the required re-
sult was attained through Allah's help.
Muhammad ibn-al-Kasim ath-Thakafi, the 'amil of al-
Hajjaj over as-Sind, had sent from as-Sind thousands of
buffaloes to al-Hajjaj, who gave al-Walid 4,000 of them, 168
and left the rest in the jungles of Kaskar.1 When Yazid
ibn-al-Muhallab was deposed and killed, and the possessions
of the banu-1-Muhallab were confiscated by Yazid ibn-'Abd-
al-Malik, the latter carried away 4,000 buffaloes, which were
in the districts of Dijlah a and Kaskar. These, too, Yazid
sent to al-Massisah together with az-Zutt sent there. Thus
the buffaloes at al-Massisah were originally 8,000. At the
time of the insurrection of Marwan ibn-Muhammad ibn-
Marwan the people of Antioch and Kinnasrin brought
under their control and took possession of many of these
animals ; but when al-Mansur became caliph he ordered that
they be restored to al-Massisah. As for the buffaloes of
Antioch, they were first brought by az-Zutt, and so were the
first ones of Buka.
Jisr al-Walid, According to abu-1-Khattab, the bridge on
the road of Adhanah [Adana] from al-Massisah lay nine
1 Hamadhani, Bulddn, p. 196 ; ibn-Khurdadhbih, p. 7.
1 Yakut, vol. iii, p. 745.
26o THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
miles from the latter, was built in the year 125, and was
called Jisr al-Walid after al-Walid ibn-'Abd-al-Malik, who
was slain.
Adhanah. According to abu-an-Nu'man al-Antaki and
others, Adhanah was built in the year 141 or 142 as the
Khurasan troops under Maslamah ibn-Yahya-1-Bajali, and
the Syrian troops under Malik ibn-Adham al-Bahili (all
sent by Salih ibn-'Ali) were camping in it.
Saihan castle. In the year 165, al-Mahdi sent his son
Hariin ar-Rashid on an expedition to the Greek Empire.
After camping at al-Khalij, ar-Rashid went forth and re-
paired al-Massisah and its mosque, increasing its garrison
and arming its inhabitants. He also built the castle which
lay by Saihan [Sarus river] near Adhanah bridge. Pre-
vious to this, al-Mansur had sent Salih ibn-'Ali on an in-
* • • •
vasion to the Greek Empire, and the latter sent Hilal ibn-
Daigham, at the head of a group of men from Damascus,
the Jordan and other places, who built this castle; but the
structure not being firm, ar-Rashid dismantled the castle
and rebuilt it.
Abu-Sulaitn rebuilds Adhanah. In the year 194 x abu-
Sulaim Faraj al-Khadim built Adhanah well and strong,
fortified it, and chose men from Khur&san and others to live
in it, giving them an increase of stipends. All that was
done by the order of Muhammad ibn-ar-Rashid. He also
made repairs in Kasr Saihan. When ar-Rashid died in
the year 193, his 'atnil for collecting tithes from the fron-
tier fortresses was abu-Sulaim who was now confirmed in*
his position by Muhammad [ibn-ar-Rashid]. To this abu-
Sulaim belonged the residence in Antioch [that bears his 169
name].
Tarsus and al-Hadath. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from al-
1 «
193 M in Yafcut, vol. i, p. 179, line 19.
THE FRONTIER FORTRESSES OF SYRIA 26l
Wakidi : — In the year 162, al-Hasan ibn-Kahtabah at-Ta'i
invaded the land of the Greeks at the head of an army of the
people of Khurasan, Mausil,1 and Syria, reinforced by men
from al-Yaman and volunteers from al-'Irak and al-Hijaz.
He started near Tarsus and called the attention of al-Mahdi
to the great troubles spared to Islam, and the good chance
it afforded to frustrate and avert the enemies' intrigues and
plans by building Tarsus, fortifying it and stationing a gar-
rison in it. In that campaign, al-Hasan distinguished him-
self and subdued the land of the Greeks, and was therefore
called ash-Shaitan [the devil]. Among his men in the in-
vasion were Mandal al-'Anazi — the traditionist of the
school of al-Kufah — and Mu'tamir ibn-Sulaiman al-Basri.
Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from Sa'd ibn-al-Hasan : — When
al-Hasan left the land of the Greeks, he camped at Marj
[plain of] Tarsus from which he rode to the city, which
was then in ruins. After examining it, he went around it
in all directions and estimated that it could be inhabited by
one hundred thousand.2 When he appeared before al-
Mahdi, he described the condition of the city and referred to
the strength that Islam and the Moslems would acquire, and
to the anger and disappointment that will ensue to the en-
emy, if the city were rebuilt and manned with a garrison. He
also told al-Mahdi something about al-Hadath that encour-
aged him to build it. Accordingly, al-Mahdi ordered him
to build Tarsus and start with al-Hadath, which was imme-
diately built. Al-Mahdi then ordered that Tarsus be built.
In the year 171, ar-Rashid heard that the Greeks had en-
joined one another to set forth to Tarsus in order to for-
tify it and station troops in it. He therefore sent in the
year 171 Harthamah ibn-A'yan as commander of the sum-
mer campaign and ordered him to build Tarsus, settle people
Hamadhani, Bulddn, pp. 26-27, 128. a Ibid., p. 113.
262 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
in it and make it a fortified boundary town * between the
two countries. Harthamah did so, putting the work, in ac-
cordance with ar-Rashid's orders, in charge of Faraj ibn-
Sulaim al-Khadim. Faraj put someone in charge, went to
Madinat as-Salam 2 and sent the first garrison, numbering
3,000, whom he chose from among the people of Khurasan.
The garrison came to Tarsus. He then sent the second gar-
rison that numbered 2,000 men, 1,000 of whom were from
al-Massisah and 1,000 from Antioch, promising each man
an increment of ten dinars on his original stipend. The 170
second garrison camped with the first at al-Mada'in near
Bab al-Jih&d, from the beginning of Muharram in the year
172, until the construction of the city of Tarsus with its
fortification and mosque was completed. Faraj measured
the land between the two rivers and found it to be 4,000
lots, each lot being twenty dhira's square. These lots he
gave as fiefs to the inhabitants of Tarsus. In Rabi' II, 172,
the two garrisons settled in the city.
Yazxd ibn-Makhlad governor of Tarsus, 'Abd-al-Malik
ibn-Salih appointed Yazid ibn-Makhlad al-Fazari as amil
over Tarsus. Those of the inhabitants who came from
Khurasan were afraid of him, because he belonged to the
clan of al-Hubairiyah, and drove him from the city. He
appointed abu-1-Fawaris to succeed him and 'Abd-al-Malik
ibn-Salih confirmed abu-1-Fawaris in his position. This
took place in the year 173.
Sisiyah. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from al-Wakidi : — In the
year 194 or 193, the inhabitants of Sisiyah [or Sis, later
Little Armenia] evacuated their homes and went as far as
the mountainous region of the Greeks.* This Sisiyah was
1 Ar. tnisr.
1 City of peace, t. e., Baghdad.
8 Yakut, vol. iii, p. 217, gives the date 93 or 94 and reads a'oli ar-Rum
instead of a' la ar-R6m.
THE FRONTIER FORTRESSES OF SYRIA 263
the city of Tall ' Ain-Zarbah and was rebuilt in the caliphate
of al-Mutawakkil by 'Ali ibn-Yahya-1-Armani [the Ar-
menian]. It was later ruined by the Greeks.
Antioch burnt. The one who burnt Antioch — condemned
as it was to burning 1 — in the land of the Greeks was 'Ab-
bas ibn-al-Walid ibn-'Abd- al-Malik.
Tall Jubair. Tall Jubair was so called after a Persian
from Antioch who fought a battle in it. The Tall lies less
than 10 miles from Tarsus.
Dhu-l-Kila'. The name of the fort known as dhu-1-
Kila' is really a corruption of dhu-1-Kila* [the fort of the
castles], which name was given to it because it was made up
of three castles. The explanation of its name in the Greek
tongue is " the fortress with the stars."
Kanisat as-Sulh. Kanisat as-Sulh [the church of peace]
was so called because when the Greeks came to ar-Rashid
to capitulate, they made it their headquarters.
Mat] Husain. Marj Husain was named after Husain
ibn-Muslim al-Antaki who fought a battle in it and de-
feated the enemy.
Damalu. In the year 163, al-Mahdi sent on a campaign
his son, Harun ar-Rashid, who laid siege to Damalu (collo-
quial Samalu). Its people asked a promise of security for
ten of their nobility including the Comes.2 Ar-Rashid con-
sented. One of their terms stipulated that they be never
separated from one another. Therefore they were settled
in Baghdadh near Bab ash-Shammasiyah.8 Their quarter
1 Hamadhani, Butddn, p. 37 : Said Makhul, " Four cities arc of the
cities of Paradise; Makkah, al-Madinah, Iliya' [Jerusalem] and Da-
mascus ; and four of the cities of fire : Antioch, at-Tuwanah, Constan-
tinople and San'aV
aAr. al-Kumis = a leader of two hundred; Zaidan, vol. i, p. 118;
Kudamah, pp. 255-256.
* Le Strange, Baghdad, p. 202.
264 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
they called Samalu, and it is still known as such. Others say
that they surrendered to al-Mahdi who spared their lives
and gathered them in that place, ordering that it be called 171
Samalu. According to ar-Rashid's orders, those who were
left in the fort were sold publicly.
One Abyssinian, who was heard cursing ar-Rashid and
the Moslems, was crucified on one of the towers of the fort.
€Ain Zarbah and al-Haruniyah. Ahmad ibn-al-Harith
al-Wasiti from al-Wakidi : — In the year 180, ar-Rashid or-
dered that the city of 'Ain Zarbah [ Anazarbus] be built and
fortified. He summoned to it a regiment from Khurasan
and others, to whom he gave houses as fiefs. In the year
183, he ordered al-Haruniyah built. It was accordingly
built and manned with a garrison and with volunteers that
emigrated to it. The city was named after him. Others
say that Harun started its erection in the caliphate of al-
Mahdi, but completed it in his own caliphate.
Kanteat as-Saudd'. The city of Kanisat as- Saudi' [black
church] had been built by the Greeks of black stone since
the earliest of days, and had an old fort that was destroyed
in the general havoc. Ar-Rashid ordered that this city be
rebuilt and fortified. He also summoned to it troops, al-
lowing them larger stipends. I was told by 'Azzun ibn-
Sa'd, one of the inhabitants of the frontier region, that the
Greeks once invaded it — as al-Kasim ibn-ar-Rashid was
staying in Dabik — and carried away its cattle and a num-
ber of prisoners. They were pursued by the people of al-
Massisah and its volunteers, who saved all that had been
carried away and killed many of the Greeks, sending the
rest of them back in distress and disorder. Then al-Kasim
sent some one to fortify the city, make repairs in it and in-
crease its garrison. For this purpose some of az-Zutt, pre-
viously transplanted by al-Mu'tasim to 'Ain Zarbah and its
environs from al-Bata'ih, which lay between Wasit and al-
Basrah, and which they had conquered, were available.
THE FRONTIER FORTRESSES OF SYRIA 265
Abu-Ishak al-Fazari's opinion on the land of ath-Thaghr.
I was informed by abu-Salih al-Antaki that abu-Ishak al-
Fazari hated to buy land in the frontier region [ath-Thaghr]
because he said, " Those who first wrested this land from
the Greeks did not divide it among themselves, and it later
passed to others. Thus it had been transmitted to others
and attached to itself a suspicion that the wise man would
do well to avoid."
Tithe-exemptions annulled by al-Mutawakkil. In ath-
Thaghr, so many pieces of land were exempt from the tithe
that the total income of tithes was diminished to such an
extent that it could not meet the expenses. By al-Mutawak-
wil's orders, therefore, all these exemptions were in the
year 243 abolished.
PART III
MESOPOTAMIA
.j i
CHAPTER I
The Conquest of Mesopotamia [al-Jazirah] 172
'Iydd its governor. Da'ud ibn-'Abd-al-Hamid the kad>\
of ar-Rakkah from Maimun ibn-Mihran: — All of Meso-
potamia was conquered by 'Iyad ibn-Ghanm who, after the
death of abu-'Ubaidah, was made its ruler by 'Umar ibn-
al-Khattab. Abu-'Ubaidah had appointed 'Iyad to be his
successor over Syria, but 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab appointed
first Yazid ibn-abi-Sufyan then Mu'awiyah over Syria, and
ordered 'Iyad x to invade Mesopotamia.
Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from Sulaiman ibn-'Ata1 al-
Kurashi : — Abu-'Ubaidah sent 'Iyad ibn-Ghanm to Meso-
potamia, and died while 'Iyad was still there. 'Umar then
assigned 'Iyad after abu-'Ubaidah as governor of Mesopo-
tamia.
The terms with ar-Ruha. Bakr ibn-al-Haitham from
Sulaiman ibn-'Ata' : — When 'Iyid ibn-Ghanm, who was
sent by abu-'Ubaidah, reduced ar-Ruha2 [Edessa, modern
Urfa], he stood at its gate riding on a brown horse; and
the inhabitants made terms stipulating that they should keep
their cathedral and the buildings around it, and agreeing
not to start a new church other than what they already had,
to give succor to the Moslems against their enemy, and to
forfeit their right of protection in case they fail to keep
any of these conditions. Similar terms to those of ar-Ruha
were made by the people of Mesopotamia.
1R. Duval, "Histoire d'fidesse," in Journal Asiatique, Juillet-Aout,
J89i, Pp. 106 seq.
2Tabari, vol. i, p. 2505.
269
270 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
The version of al-Wakidi. Muhammad ibn-Sa4d states
on the authority of al-Wakidi that the most authentic report
he heard regarding 'Iyad was that abu-'Ubaidah, in the year
18, fell victim to the plague of Emmaus ['Amawas] after
appointing 'Iyad as his successor [over Syria]. 'Iyad re-
ceived a letter from 'Umar, conferring upon him the gov-
ernorship of Hims, Kinnasrin and Mesopotamia. On
Thursday the middle of Sha'ban, year 18, he marched to
Mesopotamia at the head of 5,000 men, the van of the army
being led by Maisarah ibn-Masruk al-'Absi, the right wing
by Sa'id ibn-'Amir ibn-Hidhyam al-Jumahi and the left by
Safwan ibn-al-Mu'attal as-Sulami. Khalid ibn-al-Walid
• • •
was on the left wing. Others assert that after Abu-'Ubai-
dah, Khalid never marched under any man's flag but re- 173
mained in Hims, where he died in the year 21 after desig-
nating 'Umar to execute his will.1 Some claim that he died
in al-Madinah ; but that he died in Hims is the more authen-
tic report.2
The terms with ar-Rakkah. The van of 'Iyad's army ar-
rived in ar-Rakkah 8 and made a raid on its environs, where
Beduin Arabs were encamped with a group of peasants,
carrying off much booty. Those who escaped took to flight
and entered the city of ar-Rakkah. 'Iyad advanced with
his troops until he arrived, with his troops in military ar-
ray,4 at Bab ar-Ruha— one of the gates of the city. For
an hour the Moslems were shot at, and some of them were
wounded. In order to escape the enemy's stones and ar-
rows, 'Iyad withdrew, and, after going round the city on
1 Eajar, vol. i, pp. 853-854.
1 Yakut, vol. ii, pp. 74-75.
* Athir, vol. ii, p. 439.
* Ar. ta'bi'ah. See Wustenfeld, " Die Taktik des Aelianus," in A\h
handlungen des Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Gottingen, 1880.
THE CONQUEST OF MESOPOTAMIA 2Jl
horseback, he stationed horse-guards at its gates. He then
returned to the main army and sent bands of soldiers * who
went around, bringing back with them prisoners from the
villages and large quantities of food. It was the proper
time for reaping the harvest. This condition having lasted
for five or six days the patrician of the city asked for peace
from 'Iyad, who made terms with him, guaranteeing for
the population the security of their lives, children, posses-
sions and city. 'Iyad said, " The land is ours ; we have sub-
dued and secured it ". However, he left it in their hands
on the kharaj basis. That part of the land which was not
wanted and rejected by the dhimmis, he turned over to the
Moslems on the tithe basis. Moreover, 'Iyad assessed poll-
tax to the amount of one dinar per annum on every man,
holding women and boys exempt. In addition to the dindr,
he levied on them kaflzes1 of wheat, and some oil, vine-
gar and honey. When Mu'awiyah came to power, he laid
that as a regular tax upon them. The people then opened
the city gates and established a market for the Moslems at
the Ruha gate. The following is the statement issued by
'Iyad :
" In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful.
This is what 'Iyad ibn-Ghanm gave to the people of ar-
Rakkah when he entered the city. He gave them security
for their lives and possessions. Their churches shall not
be destroyed or occupied, so long as they pay the tax as-
sessed on them and enter in no intrigue. It is stipulated
that they build no new church or place of worship, or pub-
1 Ar. saraya who, according to al-Mas'udi, Kitab at-Tanbih, p. 279,
were bands of soldiers varying between 3 and 500 persons, that go
forth at night.
* A measure of capacity consisting of ten makkuks ; cf. Mawardi, p.
265.
272
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
licly strike clappers,1 or openly celebrate Easter Monday2
or show the cross in public. Thereunto, Allah is witness
and Allah is a sufficient witness. Signed by 'Iyad's own
signature."
Others report that 'Iyad assessed four dinars on every
adult of ar-Rakkah ; but the fact is that 'Umar wrote after 174
this to 'Umair ibn-Sa'd, his governor, instructing him to
assess four dinars on every man, as it was the case with
those who possessed gold.
The terms with ar-Ruha. 'lyad then advanced against
Harran and encamped at Bajuddah, whence he sent forth
the van of the army. The people of Harran closed the
city gates, shutting the troops out. 'Iyad followed up the
van and when he camped at Harran, the Harnaniyah from
among its inhabitants sent him a word saying that they had
under their control a part of the city and asking him to go
to ar-Ruha, promising to accept whatever terms he may
make with it, and leaving him free to negotiate with the
Christians of Harran. Hearing that, the Christians sent
him word, consenting to what had been proposed and of-
fered by al-Harnaniyah. Accordingly, 'Iyad advanced to
ar-Ruha whose people gathered against and shot at the Mos-
lems for an hour. The fighters made a sally, but the Mos-
lems put them to flight and forced them to seek refuge in
the city. No sooner had that taken place than they of-
fered to capitulate and make peace. To this, 'Iyad con-
sented and wrote them the following statement : 8
" In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful.
*Ar. ndkUs.
1 Ar ba'uth, used to-day for the Christian festival of Monday after
Easter, is defined by Kam&s, Taj al- Arils and Lisan al-Arab as cor-
responding to the Moslem prayer in which a petition for rain is offered.
Cf. S. Fraenkel, Die Aramaischen Fremdworter itn Arabischen, p. 277.
8 Cf. Ytisuf , p. a3-
THE CONQUEST OF MESOPOTAMIA 273
This is a statement from 'Iyad ibn-Ghanm to the bishop of
ar-Ruha. If ye open before me the city gate and agree to
offer to me for every man one dinar and two modii of
wheat, then I grant you safety for your persons, possessions
and those dependent on you. It is incumbent on you to
guide the one who goes astray, to repair the bridges and
roads, and give good counsel to the Moslems. Thereunto,
Allah is witness ; and he is sufficient."
Da'ud ibn-'Abd-al-Hamid from a grandfather of his:
— The statement of 'Iyad to the inhabitants of ar-Ruha ran
as follows : —
" In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful.
This is a statement from Tyad ibn-Ghanm and his accom-
panying Moslems to the inhabitants of ar-Ruha. I have
granted them security for their lives, possessions, offspring,
women, city and mills, so long as they give what they
rightly owe. They are bound to repair our bridges, and
guide those of us who go astray. Thereunto, Allah and his
angels and the Moslems are witnesses."
Harran and Sumaisat capitulate. 'Iyad then came to
Harran and directed Safwan ibn-al-Mu'attal and Habib
• m • • •
ibn-Maslamah-1-Fihri to Sumaisat.1 With the people of
Harran, he made terms similar to those of ar-Ruha. Its
inhabitants opened the city gates for him, and he assigned
a governor over it. He then came to Sumaisat and found
Safwan ibn-al-Mu'attal and Habib ibn-Maslamah direct-
. . . •
ing their operations against it, after having reduced many 175
of its villages and forts. The people of Sumaisat made
terms similar to those of ar-Ruha. 'Iyad used to make in-
cursions from ar-Ruha and return to it.
All Mesopotamia reduced by 'Iyad. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd
from az-Zuhri : — In the days of 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab, not
4 Samosata ; Istakhri, p. 62.
274
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
a foot was left in Mesopotamia unsubdued by 'Iyad ibn-
Ghanm who reduced Harran, ar-Ruha, ar-Rakkah, Kar-
kisiya [Circesium] Nasibin [Nisibis] and Sinjar.
Muhammad [ibn-Sa'd] from Thabit ibn-al-Hajjaj :—
'Iyad effected the conquest of ar-Rakkah, Harran, ar-Ruha,
Nasibin, Maiyafarikin, Karkisiya, and all the villages and
towns of the Euphrates by capitulation; but all the open
fields by force.
Muhammad [ibn-Sa'd] from Rashid ibn-Sa'd: — 'Iyad
effected the conquest of Mesopotamia and its towns by
capitulation ; but its land, by force.
The terms with Harran. Someone reported that when
'Iyad came to Harran from ar-Rakkah, he found it de-
serted, its inhabitants having moved to ar-Ruha. When
ar-Ruha was captured, the people of Harran in it made
terms regarding their city similar to those of ar-Ruha.
Sariij and other places subdued by 'Iydd. Abu-Aiyub
ar-Rakki-1-Mu'addab from al-Hajjaj ibn-abi-Mani' ar-
Rusafi's1 grandfather: — 'Iyad captured ar-Rakkah, then
ar-Ruha, then Harran, and then Sumaisat on the same
terms of capitulation. Thence he came to Sariij,2 Ras-
kifa 8 and al-Ard al-Baida', subdued their land, and made
terms with the holders of their forts similar to those
of ar-Ruha. The people of Sumaisat after that rebelled,
which made him, on hearing it, return and besiege the
city until he reduced it. Having heard that the inhabi-
tants of ar-Ruha had broken their covenant, he camped
around the city, upon which they opened their city gates.
He entered the city and left in it his 'dmil with a small band.
Thence he came to the villages of the Euphrates 4 which are
1 Dhahabi, Mushtabih, p. 225 ; Mushtarik, p. 206.
* Batnan ; see ZDMG, vol. xxx, p. 354.
8 R. Payne Smith, Thesaurus Syriacus, cols. 3902 and 2910.
4 Kuraiyat or Karyat al-Furat; cf. Hamadhani, Buldan, p. 136.
THE CONQUEST OF MESOPOTAMIA 275
Jisr Manbij and its dependents, which he reduced on simi-
lar terms. 'Ain al-Wardah or Ra's al-'Ain x to which he
came next held out against him; so he left it. He then
came to Tall Mauzin 2 and took it on the same terms as ar- 176
Ruha. That took place in the year 19. Against Karkisiya,
'Iyad directed Habib ibn-Maslamah-1-Fihri who took the
city by a capitulation similar to that of ar-Rakkah. 'Iyad
captured Amid without fighting and on terms similar to
those of ar-Ruha. He captured Maiyafarikin on the same
terms. He also reduced the fort of Kafartutha.3 After a
conflict, he reduced Nasibin and the terms concluded were
similar to those of ar-Ruha. Tur 'Abdin,4 Hisn Maridin
and Dara 5 he took on the same terms. Karda and Bazabda
he conquered on the same terms as those of Nasibin. The
patrician of az-Zawazan came to 'Iyad and made terms re-
garding his lands, agreeing to pay tax. All that took place
in the year 19 and in a part of Muharram, year 20. He
then advanced to Arzan and took possession of it on terms
similar to those of Nasibin. He then passed through ad-
Darb into Badlis which he left for Khilat with whose patri-
cian he made terms. Finally, he got to al-'Ain al-Himidah
in Armenia beyond which he did not go. On his way, back,
he made the chief of Badlis responsible for the kharaj of
Khilat with its poll-tax and what was due on its patrician.
He then proceeded to ar-Rakkah, and on to Hims whose
governorship had been entrusted to him by 'Umar. In the
year 20, he died. 'Umar after that appointed Sa'id ibn-
'Amir ibn-Hidhyamf who died after a short time. 'Umar
1 Hoffman, Syrische Akten Persischer Martyrer, p. 183.
1 Hoffman, op. cit.t p. 224, note 1778.
• R. Payne Smith, op. city col. 1801.
4 R. Payne Smith, op. cit., col. 145 1.
• Hoffman, op. cit., p. 46.
276 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
then appointed 'Umair ibn-Sa'd al-Ansari, who succeeded
in capturing 'Ain al-Wardah after a severe conflict
'Ain al-Wardah or Ra's al-cAin captured. Al-Wakidi
from abu-Wahb al-Jaish&ni Dailam ibn-al-Muwassa' :—
'Umar ibn-al-Khattab wrote to Tyad instructing him to
send 'Umair ibn-Sa'd to 'Ain al-Wardah. This he did.
The van of the army went ahead, assailed a group of peas-
ants and carried away some of the enemy's cattle as booty.
The inhabitants of the city closed their gates and set up
the mangonels * on them. Many Moslems were killed by
stones and arrows. Then one of the patricians of the city
appeared and cursed the Moslems saying, " We are differ-
ent from what ye have met heretofore !" At last the city
was taken by capitulation.
Amr ibn-Muhammad from a grandfather of al-Hajjaj
ibn-abi-Mani' : — Ra's al-'Ain 2 held out against 'Iyad ibn-
Ghanm; but 'Umair ibn-Sa'd, who was 'Umar's governor
over Mesopotamia, reduced it after a fierce resistance on 177
the part of its inhabitants. The Moslems entered by force;
but terms of capitulation were drawn up stipulating that the
land be held by them and the tax be imposed on their per-
sons to the amount of four dinars per head. Their women
and children were not taken as captives.
The following statement was made by al-Hajjaj: "I
heard it said by certain sheikhs from Ra's al-'Ain that when
'Umair entered the city he shouted, ' Never mind ; never
mind; [come] to me! [come] to me!' and that constituted
a guarantee of security for them."
It is claimed by al-Haitham ibn-'Adi that 'Umar ibn-al-
Khattab sent abu-Musa-1-Ash'ari to 'Ain al-Wardah, which
■ •
1 At. 'arradah; see Hamasah (ed. Freytag), p. 307.
1 Another name for 'Ain-al-Wardah. See al-Mas'udi, Tanbih, p. 54J
Yakut, vol. iii, p. 764.
THE CONQUEST OF MESOPOTAMIA 2JJ
he invaded with the troops of Mesopotamia after the death
of Tyad. The fact is that 'Umair captured it by force and
did not take any captives. He only imposed kharaj and
poll-tax. The view of Haitham is not shared by any other
authority. .
According to al-Hajjaj ibn-abi-Mani', a part of the in-
habitants of Ra's al-'Ain having vacated it, the Moslems
utilized their lands and cultivated them according to the
fief system.
Sinjar captured. Muhammad ibn-al-Mufaddal al-
Mausili from certain sheikhs of Sinjar: — Sinjar1 was held
by the Greeks. Kisra — [Chosroes] known as Abarwiz —
wanted to put to death one hundred Persians who were
brought before him because of rebellion and disobedience.
Someone having interceded in their behalf, he ordered them
sent to Sinjar, which he was then attempting to reduce.
Two of them died, and 98 arrived there, joined the troops
who were encamped against the city, and were the first to
capture it. There they settled and multiplied. When 'Iyad
was through with Khilat and was going to Mesopotamia,
he sent an expedition to Sinjar, took the city by capitula-
tion, and settled it with Arabs.
Mausil. Some reports claim that 'Iyad reduced one of the
forts of Mausil, but that is not confirmed.
According to ibn-al-Kalbi, 'Umair ibn-Sa'd, the 'amil of
'Umar is identical with 'Umar ibn-Sa'd ibn-Shuhaid ibn-
'Amr one of al-Aus; but according to al-Wakidi, he is
'Umair ibn-Sa'd ibn-'Ubaid whose father, Sa'd, was killed
in the battle of al-Kadisiyah. This Sa'd, according to the
Kufite school, is one of those who compiled the Koran in the
time of the Prophet.
Khalid dismissed. Al-Wakidi states that some reports
1 Yakut, vol. iii, p. 158.
278 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
claim that Khalid ibn-al-Walid ruled in 'Umar's name a
part of Mesopotamia ; and once as he was in a bath, at Amid
[Diyarbakr], or at some other place, he daubed himself 178
with a substance containing wine, which made 'Umar dis-
miss him. This, however, is not confirmed.
The tax on Mesopotamia. 'Amr an-Nakid from Maimun
ibn-iViihran : — For some time, oil and vinegar and food
were taken for the benefit of the Moslems in Mesopotamia,
which tax was later reduced through the sympathy of
'Umar and fixed at 48, 24, and 12 dirltatns. In addition to
the poll-tax, every one had to provide two tnudds of wheat
two kists of oil and two kists of vinegar.
Mosques erected. I was informed by a number of the in-
habitants of ar-Rakkah that when 'Iyad died and Sa'id ibn-
'Amir ibn-Hidhyam became governor of Mesopotamia, the
latter erected the mosque of ar-Rakkah and that of ar-
Ruha, after which he died. The mosques in Diyar Mudar
and Diyar Rabi'ah were erected by 'Umair ibn-Sa'd.
Mu'awiyah settles Arab tribes. When Mu'awiyah ruled
over Syria and Mesopotamia in the name of 'Uthman ibn-
'Affan, he was instructed by him to settle the Arabs in
places far from the cities and villages, and allow them to
utilize the lands unpossessed by anyone. Accordingly, he
caused the banu-Tamim to settle at ar-Rabiyah ; and a pro-
miscuous multitude of Kais and Asad and others, in al-
Mazihin and al-Mudaibir.1 The same thing he did in Diyar
Mudar. In like manner, he stationed the Rabi'ah in their
Diyar. The cities and villages and frontier garrisons he put
in charge of some, who received stipends in order to guard
them and protect them, and whom he put there with his
'dmils.
Scorpions in Nasibin. Abu-Haf s ash-Shami from Ham-
1 Kudamah, p. 246.
THE CONQUEST OF MESOPOTAMIA 279
mad ibn-'Amr an-Nasibi : — The 'dmil of Nasibin wrote to
Mu'awiyah, 'Uthman's governor over Syria and Mesopota-
mia, complaining that some of the Moslems in his company
had fallen victim to the scorpions. Mu'awiyah wrote back in-
structing him to demand of the inhabitants in each quarter
of the city a fixed number of scorpions to be brought every
evening. This he did. They used to bring the scorpions
before him, and he would order that they be killed.
Karkisiya, the Euphrates forts and other places reduced.
Abu-Aiyub al-Mu'addab ar-Rakki from abu-'Abdallah al-
Karkasani's sheikhs: — When 'Umair ibn-Sa'd captured
Ra's al-'Ain he made his way across and beyond al-Kha-
bur x to Karkisiya whose people had violated the covenant.
With them he made terms similar to those made before, 179
and then advanced against the forts along the course of the
Euphrates one after the other, which he reduced all on the
same terms as Karkisiya. In none of them did he meet
severe resistance. Some of them would sometimes throw
stones at him. When he was through with Talbas 2 and
'Anat,8 he came to an-Na'usah, Alusah 4 and Hit where he
found out that 'Ammar ibn-Yasir, the 'atnil of 'Umar ibn-
al-Khattab over al-Kuf ah, had sent an army for the invasion
of the region above al-Anbar, under the leadership of Sa'd
ibn-'Amr ibn-Haram al-Ansari. The holders of these forts
had come to Sa'd and demanded peace, which he arranged
with them, retaining one-half of the church of Hit. 'Umair,
therefore, kept on his way to ar-Rakkah.
I learned from certain scholars that the one who went
against Hit and the forts beyond in al-Kufah was Midlaj
1 A tributary of the Euphrates ; Tanbih, p. 54.
1 Vowels uncertain ; Caetani, vol. iv, p. 222.
• Hoffman, op. cit, p. 137, note 1162.
* Yakut, vol. i, p. 65.
28o THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
ibn-'Amr as-Sulami, an ally of the banu-'Abd-Shams and
one of the Companions, who effected their capture. This
Midlaj built al-Hadithah on the Euphrates. His descendants
were at Hit. The memory of one of them, surnamed abu-
Harun, still lives there. Others assert that Midlaj was sent
by Sa'd ibn-' Amr ibn-Haram ; but Allah knows best.
Nahr Sa'id. In the place of Nahr Sa'id — the canal named
after Sa'id ibn-'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan (who was nick-
named Sa'id al-Khair and who practised asceticism) — once
stood a jungle frequented by lions. Al-Walid gave it to
him [Sa'id] as fief, and he dug out the canal and erected the
buildings that stand there. According to others, it was
'Umar ibn-' Abd-al-' Aziz who gave it as fief.
Ar-Rafikah. There is no trace that ar-Rafikah is an old
city. It was built by al-Mansur the " Commander of the
Believers " in the year 155, according to the plan of his city
in Baghdadh. Al-Mansur stationed in it an army of the
people of Khurasan and entrusted it to al-Mahdi, who was
at that time the heir-apparent. Later, ar-Rashid built its
castles. Between ar-Rakkah and ar-Rafikah lay a wide
tract of sown land to which 'AH ibn-Sulaiman ibn-'Ali
moved the markets of ar-Rakkah when he came as governor
to Mesopotamia. Previous to this, the greatest market of
ar-Rakkah was called Suk Hisham al-'Atik [the old market
of Hisham]. When ar-Rashid visited ar-Rakkah, he in-
creased the number of these markets, whose income to-
gether with that from the confiscated towns, is still col-
lected to-day.
Rusafat Hisham and cd-Hani wa-l-Mari. As for Rusafat
Hisham,1 it was built by Hisham ibn-'Abd-al-Malik who 180
previous to its building, used to stop at az-Zaitunah. Hi-
1 or ar-Rusafat bi-ash-Sham ; Yakut, vol. ii. p. 784. Rusafat means
causeway.
THE CONQUEST OF MESOPOTAMIA 28l
sham dug out al-Hani wa-1-Mari [canals], thus making the
crown-land known as al-Hani-wa-1-Mari tillable land. He
founded in it Wash ar-Rakkah.1 This same land was con-
• • •
fiscated at the beginning of the [Abbasid] dynasty and
passed into the hands of umm-Ja'far Zubaidah, daughter of
Ja'far ibn-al-Mansur, who built in it the fief house that
bears her name, and settled more people in it.
Ar-Rahbah. There is no trace that ar-Rahbah, which lies
below Karkisiya, is an old city, it having been built by
Malik ibn-Tauk ibn-'Attab2 at-Taghlabi in the caliphate
of al-Ma'mun.
Adhramah. Adhramah in Diyar Rabi'ah was an old vil-
lage which al-Hasan ibn-'Umar ibn-al-Khattab at-Taghlabi
took from its chief and in which he built a castle, thus for-
tifying it.
Kafartutha. Kafartutha * was an old fort that was occu-
pied by the offspring of abu-Rimthah, who made a town of
it and foritfied it.
Diyar RabVah and al-Barriyah. Mu'afa ibn-Ta'us from
his father : — The latter said, " I asked certain sheikhs re-
garding the tithes of Balad and Diyar Rabi'ah and al-
Barriyah 4 and was told that they were the tithes of lands
held by the Arabs when they embraced Isl&m, or reclaimed
by them from waste lands unpossessed by any one or given
up by the Christians, and which have consequently become
waste and covered with brushwood. These lands were
given to the Arabs as fiefs."
'Ain ar-Rutniyah. Abu-'Affan ar-Rakki from certain
sheikhs of the writers of ar-Rakkah and others : — 'Ain ar-
> •
» Yakut, vol. iv, p. 889.
2 Cf. Mahasin, vol. ii, p. 34.
8 R. Payne Smith, col. 1801.
4 The desert part of Mesopotamia. Yakut, vol. i, p. 601 ; Bakri, p. 566.
282 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Rumiyah together with its spring belonged to al-Walid ibn-
'Ukbah ibn-abi-Mu'ait who gave it to abu-Zubaid at-Ta'i
from whom it passed to abu-1-' Abbas the " Commander of
the Believers." Abu-l-'Abbas gave it as fief to Maimun
ibn-Hamzah, the freedman of 'Ali ibn-'Abdallah ibn-' Ab-
bas, from whose heirs ar-Rashid bought it It lies in the
district of ar-Rakkah.
Ghdbat ibn-Hubairah. Ghabat ibn-Hubairah [the forest
of ibn-Hubairah] was first given as fief to ibn-Hubairah,
but later confiscated and assigned as fief to Bishr ibn-Mai-
mun, the builder of at-Takat x [archways or arcades] at
Baghdadh in the vicinity of Bab ash-Sham [the Syrian
gate] . This Ghabat was later bought by ar-Rashid. It lies
in the province of Saruj.
'A'ishah fief. The fief which was given by Hisham to
his daughter, 'A'ishah, at Raskifa and which bore her name
was also confiscated.
Salaus and Kafarjadda. 'Abd-al-Malik and Hisham
owned a village called Sala'us and half of another called 181
Kafarjadda which lay in the province of ar-Ruha.
Tall'Afra', Tall Madhaba, al-Musalla and Rabad Harran.
In Harran, al-Ghamr ibn-Yazid owned Tall *Af ra', the land
of Tall Madhaba,2 and Ard al-Musalla [place of prayer],
together with the confiscated lands and the workshops in
Rabad Harran.
Marj 'Abd-al-Wahid. Before al-Hadath and Zibatrah
were built, Marj 8 'Abd-al-Wahid was a pasturing place
reserved for the Moslems 4 ; but when these two were built,
the Moslems could do without the Marj, which was peopled
1 Cf. Lc Strange, Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate, p. 130.
9 Lacking in diacritical points.
8 The word means meadow.
4 Ar. faima ; see Mawardi, p. 324.
THE CONQUEST OF MESOPOTAMIA 283
and later added by al-Husain al-Khadim in the caliphate of
ar-Rashid to al-Ahwaz. After that, some people unjustly
took possession of it and of its farms, in which condition it
remained until 'Abdallah ibn-Tahir came to Syria and re-
turned it to the crown-lands. Abu-Aiyub ar-Rakki heard
it said that 'Abd-al- Wahid, after whom the Marj was
named, was 'Abd-al-Wahid ibn-al-Harith ibn-al-Hakam
ibn-abi-l-'Asi, a cousin of 'Abd-al-Malik. He owned the
Marj, but turned it into a pasture land exclusively for the
Moslems. He is the one whom al-Katami lauded, saying :
If fate would overlook only 'Abd-al- Wahid,
let not the case of all the other inhabitants of the city grieve thee.9
CHAPTER II
The Christians of the banu-Taghlib ibn-Wa'il
'Umar doubles their sadakah. Shaiban ibn-Farriikh from
as-Saffah ash-Shaibani : — 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab wanted to
collect the poll-tax from the Christian tribe, banu-Taghlib;
but they took to flight and some of them went to a distant
land. An-Nu'man ibn-Zur'ah (or Zur'ah ibn-an-Nu'man)
addressed 'Umar saying : " I plead in Allah's name for the
banu-Taghlib. They are a body of Arabs too proud to pay
poll-tax, but severe in warfare. Let not thy enemy, there-
fore, be enriched by them to thy disadvantage." x There-
upon 'Umar called them back and doubled the sadakah laid
on them.
Neither Moslems, nor of the " people of the Book"
Shaiban from ibn-' Abbas : — The latter said, " What is
slaughtered by the Christians of the banu-Taghlib shall not
be eaten, and their women shall not be taken as wives [by 182
us]. They are neither of us nor of the 'people of the
Book.' "
'Umair consults 'Umar. 'Abbas ibn-Hisham from 'Awa-
nah ibn-al-Hakam and abu-Mikhnaf: — 'Umair ibn-Sa'd
wrote to 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab informing him that he had
come to the regions on the Syrian slope of the Euphrates
and captured 'Anat and the other forts of [1. c, along the
course of] the Euphrates ; and that when he wished to con-
strain the banu-Taghlib of that region to accept Islam, they
refused and were on the point of leaving for some Byzan-
tine territory ; no one on the Syrian slope of the Euphrates
whom he wished to constrain to Islam had before the banu-
1 Cf. Yiisuf. p. 68.
*84
THE CHRISTIANS OF THE BANU-TAGHUB 285
Taghlib showed such tenacity and asked permission to emi-
grate. 'Umair asked 'Umar's advice on this matter.
'Umar wrote back ordering him to double on all their pas-
turing cattle l and land the amount of sadakah ordinarily
taken from Moslems ; and if they should refuse to pay that,
he ought to war with them until he annihilates them or they
accept Islam. They accepted to pay a double sadakah2
saying, " So long as it is not the tax of the * uncircum-
cized/ we shall pay it and retain our faith." *
The terms with the banu-Taghlib. 'Amr an-Nakid from
Da'ud ibn-Kurdus: — After having crossed the Euphrates
and decided to leave for the land of the Greeks, the banu-
Taghlib made terms with 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab, agreeing
not to immerse [baptize] a child or compel him to accept
their faith, and to pay a double sadakah, D&'ud ibn-Kur-
dus used to repeat that they had no claim to security
[dhitnmah], because they used immersion in their ritual —
referring to baptism.
Only they pay double sadakah. Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad
— ^^^^^»^— ■ 1 ■ ■ 1 1 ■ ■■-■■—■ 1 1 ■ 1 — p. .■ ■
from az-Zuhri : — None of the " people of the Book " pay
sadakah on their cattle except the Christian banu-Taghlib
or — he perhaps said — the Christian Arabs, whose whole
possessions consist of cattle. These pay twice what the
Moslems pay.
Zur'ah intercedes in their behalf. Sa'id ibn-Sulaiman
Sa'dawaih from Zur'ah ibn-an-Nu'm&n : — The latter inter-
ceded with 'Umar in favor of the Christians of the banu-
Taghlib, saying, " They are Arabs too proud to pay the
poll-tax, and are possessors of tillable land and cattle."
'Umar had decided to take tax from them and they became
dispersed in the whole country. At last, 'Umar made terms
1 Cf. Yusuf, p. 68.
1 Cf. ibn-Anas, al-Mudauzvonah-l-Kubra, vol. ii, p. 42.
8 MFO, vol. iii, pp. 159, 162.
286 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
with them, stipulating that they pay double what the Mos- 183
lems pay in the form of sadakah on the land and cattle, and
that they do not christen their children.
What 'AH would do. According to Mughirah, 'Ali used
to repeat, " If 1 should have the time to deal with the banu-
Taghlib, I would have my own way with them. Their
fighters I would surely put to death, and their children I
would take as captives, because by christening their chil-
dren they violated the covenant and are no more in our
trust [dhitnmah]."
What Ziyad said. Abu-Nasr at-Tammar from Ziyad
ibn-Hudair al-Asadi : — The latter said, " I was sent by
'Umar to the Christians of the banu-Taghlib in order to col-
lect from them half the tithe on their possessions, and was
warned against collecting tithes from a Moslem, or from a
dhimmi that pays khardj."
'Uthman withdraws his word. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd
from Muhammad ibn-Ibrahim ibn-al-Harith : — 'Uthman
gave orders that nothing be accepted from the banu-Tagh-
lib as tax except the tithe on gold and silver. Having, how-
ever, learned the fact that 'Umar took from them a double
sadakah, he withdrew his word.
The tax on banu-Taghlib. According to al-Wakidi, it is
said by Sufyan ath-Thauri, al-Auza'i, Malik ibn-Anas, ibn-
abi-Lailah, ibn-abi-Dhi'b, abu-Hanifah and abu-Yusuf that
from one of the banu-Taghlib is collected double what is
collected from a Moslem, on land, cattle and possessions.
But if he is a child or idiot, a double sadakah — according
to the school of al-Trak — is taken on his land, and nothing
on his cattle; and according to the school of al-Hijaz, a
double sadakah is taken on his cattle and his land. They
all, however, agree that what is taken from the banu-Tagh-
lib should be spent in the same way as khardj, because it is
a substitute for tax.
CHAPTER III
The Fortifications of the Mesopotamian Frontier
Shimshat. When 'Uthman ibn-'Affan became caliph, he
wrote to Mu'awiyah conferring on him the governorship of
Syria, and assigned 'Umair ibn-Sa'd al-Ansari as governor
of Mesopotamia. Later he dismissed the latter and com-
bined both Syria and Mesopotamia, including their frontier 184
fortifications [thughur] under Mu'awiyah, in the meantime
ordering Mu'awiyah to invade or send someone to invade
Shimshat,1 i. e.t Armenia IV. Accordingly, Mu'awiyah
sent thereto Habib ibn-Maslamah-1-Fihri and Safwan ibn-
Mu'attal as-Sulami who, after a few days of camping
around it, reduced it and made terms similar to those of ar-
Ruha. Safwan took up his abode in Armenia until his
death towards the end of Mu'awiyah's caliphate. It is held
by others that Mu'awiyah himself led the invasion with
these two in his company, that he then conferred its gov-
ernorship on Safwan, who lived in it until his death. After
stopping in Malatyah in the year 133, Constantine the
" tyrant " camped around Shimshat with hostile intentions,
but effected nothing. After making a raid on the surround-
ing places, he departed. Shimshat was included in the
kharaj-l&nd until the time of al-Mutawakkil who changed
it into a tithe-land, putting it on the same level with the
other frontier fortresses.
Kamkh. After the conquest of Shimshat, Habib ibn-
1 Yakut, vol. iii, p. 319.
287
288 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Maslamah attacked Hisn Kamkh 1 but failed to reduce it.
Safwan too attacked it and failed. In the year 59 — the
year in which he died — Safwan made another attempt on
it, at which time he was accompanied by 'Umair ibn-al-
Hubab 2 as-Sulami, who climbed the wall and kept strug-
gling single-handed until the Greeks gave way and the Mos-
lems climbed up. Thus the reduction of Kamkh was due to
'Umair ibn-al-Hubab and was the thing in which he boasted
and others boasted for him. Later, however, the Greeks
succeeded in taking it ; but it was recaptured by Maslamah
ibn-'Abd-al-Malik. Thus the fort passed back and forth
from the hands of the Moslems to the hands of the Greeks
until the year 149 in which al-Mansur left Baghdadh for
Hadithat al-Mausil from which he sent al-Hasan ibn-
• • •
Kahtabah and after him Muhammad ibn-al-Ash'ath, both
under the leadership of al-' Abbas ibn-Muhammad, for the
invasion of Kamkh. Muhammad ibn-al-Ash'ath died at
•
Amid.8 Al-' Abbas and al-Hasan advanced to Malatyah4
from which they took provisions, and then camped around
Kamkh. A1-* Abbas ordered that mangonels be set upon the
fort. The holders of the fort covered it with cypress wood
to protect it against the mangonel stones, and killed by the
stones they hurled two hundred Moslems. The Moslems
then set their mantelets B and fought severely until they 185
captured it. Among those in the company of al-' Abbas ibn-
Muhammad ibn-'Ali in this campaign was Matar al-War-
rak. Once more the Greeks took Kamkh fort, and in the
year 177 an attack against it was led by Muhammad ibn-
1 IJaukal, pp. 129, 130.
* Cf. Mafoasin, vol. i, p. 204; Duraid, p. 187.
* Diyarbakr.
* * Yakut, vol. iv, pp. 633-634.
* Ar. dabbdbah; Zaidan, vol. i, p. 143.
THE MESOPOTAMIAN FRONTIER 289
* Abdallah ibn-' Abd-ar-Rahman ibn-abi-' Amrah-1- Ansari, the
'dtnil of 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Salih over Shimshat, which re-
suited in its reduction. The fort was entered on the 14th
of Rabi* II, 177, and was held by the Moslems until the time
of the civil war led by Muhammad ibn-ar-Rashid, at which
time its holders fled away and the Greeks took possession
of it. Some hold that the fort was delivered to the Greeks
by 'Ubaidallah ibn-al-Akta* who, thereby, saved his son
who was held by them as prisoner. In the caliphate of al-
Ma'mun, ' Abdallah ibn-Tahir reduced it ; and it was in the
hands of the Moslems until certain Christians from Shim-
shat, Kalikala together with Bikrat ibn-Ashut, the patrician
of Khilat, succeeded by subtle means in transferring it to
the Greeks, and in this wise winning their favor which the
Christians desired because they held crown-lands in the
province of Shimshat.
Malatyah. Habib ibn-Maslamah-1-Fihri was sent by
*Iyad ibn-Ghanm from Shimshat to Malatyah x whose con-
quest he effected. The city was later lost to the Moslems.
When Mu'awiyah became governor of Syria and Mesopo-
tamia, he sent again Habib ibn-Maslamah who took it by
force and stationed in it a Moslem company of horsemen
to keep post on the frontier and a 'dmil. When Mu'awiyah
visited it on his way to the land of the Greeks, he stationed
in it a garrison from Syria, Mesopotamia and other places.
It became one of the headquarters for the summer expedi-
tions. In the days of 'Abdallah ibn-az-Zubair, its inhabi-
tants having left it, the Greeks came and devastated it; but
they soon after evacuated it, and it was occupied by Arme-
nian and Nabatean [Aramean] Christians.
Turandah. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from al-Wakidi: —
a * "
After its invasion by 'Abdallah ibn-' Abd-al-Malik in the
1 Yakut, vol. iv, pp. 633-634.
290 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
year 83, the Moslems settled in Turandah l and built their
houses in it. This Turandah is three days' journey from
Malatyah and lies in the interior of the Byzantine Empire.
Malatyah at this time was in ruins and inhabited by only a
few Armenian dhimmis and others. In summer, a detach-
ment of troops from Mesopotamia would come and stay
in it until the rain and snow began to fall, at which time
they would return. When 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz became 186
caliph, he made the inhabitants of Turandah, against their
will, evacuate it, because he feared a raid of the enemy
upon them. As they left, they carried away everything on
their backs, leaving nothing behind and breaking even the
jars of oil and vinegar. 'Umar settled them in Malatyah
and destroyed Turandah, making Ja'wanah ibn-al-Harith
of the banu-'Amir ibn-Sa'sa'ah the governor of Malatyah.
The Greeks descend upon Malatyah. In the year 123,
some 20,000 Greeks made a descent on Malatyah. Its in-
habitants closed the gates ; and the women appeared on the
wall with turbans on their heads and took part in the fight
The people of Malatyah then sent a messenger to appeal
for help. He rode on a post-mule and came to Hisham ibn-
'Abd-al-Malik who was then at ar-Rusafah. Hisham sum-
moned the Moslems to the help of Malatyah, but hearing
that the Greeks had withdrawn from it, he communicated
the news to the messenger and sent him with horsemen to
remain at the frontier in readiness for the enemy. Hisham
led an expedition in person, after which he alighted in
Malatyah where he lay encamped until it was built. On
his way, he passed through ar-Rakkah which he entered
with his sword at his side. This was the first time in his
rule in which he carried his sword.
It is reported by al-Wakidi that in the year 133, Constan-
1 Yakut, vol. iii. p. 534-
THE MESOPOTAMIA^ FRONTIER 2$l
tine the " tyrant " directed his march to Malatyah. Kamkh
at that time was in Moslem hands; and its governor was
one of the banu-Sulaim. The people of Kamkh having sent
a call to the people of Malatyah for succor, 800 horsemen
sallied forth from it to meet the Greeks. The Greek cavalry
defeated them after a battle, and Constantine camped
around Malatyah and invested it. At this time, Mesopo-
tamia was the scene of a civil war and its 'amil Musa ibn-
Ka'b was at Harran. Therefore, when the people of Ma-
latyah sent a messenger soliciting aid, nobody came. Hear-
ing that, Constantine addressed the people of Malatyah
saying, " O people of Malatyah, I would not have come to
you had I not realized your state and the fact that your
authorities [sultan] are too busy to help you. Make peace
therefore with me and leave the city that I may destroy it
and go my way." The people did not comply with his de-
mand; so he set the mangonels. The siege was pressed
so hard and the inhabitants were so exhausted that thev
asked Constantine for safe-conduct, which request he ac-
cepted. As they prepared to leave, they carried every light
thing they could and threw what was too heavy into wells
and hiding places. As they made their way out, all the
Greeks stood in two rows from the city gates to the end
of the line, with their swords unsheathed and the point of
the one sword on the point of the one opposite to it, thus 187
making an arch. The Greeks saw them off until they got
to their place of safety, upon which they turned toward
Mesopotamia where they settled in various places. Malat-
yah was then razed to the ground by the Greeks, who left
nothing but a granary of which only one side was dam-
aged. Hisn Kaludhiyah was also destroyed by them.
Malatyah rebuilt. In the year 139, al-Mansur wrote to
Salih ibn-'Ali ordering him to rebuild and fortify Malat-
yah. He then deemed it best to send 'Abd-al-Wahhab ibn-
/
292 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Ibrahim al-Imam as governor over Mesopotamia and its
frontier fortresses. Accordingly, 'Abd-al-Wahhab started
in the year 140 at the head of troops from Khurasan and
was accompanied by al-Hasan ibn-Kahtabah. He ordered
the people of Syria and Mesopotamia to furnish contin-
gents of troops, which they did to the number of 70,000.
With these, he marched to the site of Malatyah, gathered
workmen from various places and started the construction.
Al-Hasan ibn-Kahtabah himself would sometimes carry a
stone and hand it over to the mason. He would also pro-
vide the workers with dinners and suppers at his own ex-
pense, opening his kitchens to the public. 'Abd-al-Wahhab
was displeased at this and wrote to abu-Ja'far stating that
he ['Abd-al-Wahh&b] gave food to the people, but al-Hasan
distributed many times more, his aim being to contend with
him for superiority in beneficence, to spoil what he did, and
to disparage him by means of extravagance and hypocrisy ;
and that al-Hasan had special heralds to go round calling
people to his meals. To this, abu-Ja'far replied, " Boy,
al-Hasan feeds people on his own account; and thou feed-
est them on mine. What thou hast written was due to thy
ignominy, deficient energy and base-mindedness." In the
meantime, he wrote to al-Hasan : " Feed the people, but do
not use a herald." Al-Hasan used to announce to the work-
men that he who, in building a wall, got first to the crown
of a cornice would receive so much." This made them put
forth special effort to finish the work ; and thus was Malat-
yah with its mosque rebuilt in 6 months. For every group
of ten to fifteen troops in the army, he built a house of two
rooms below and two rooms above and a stable. At a dis-
tance of thirty miles from the city, he built a frontier castle
and another on a rivulet called Kub&kib that empties its
water into the Euphrates. Al-Mansur settled in Malatyah
4,000 fighters from Mesopotamia, Malatyah being one of
THE MESOPOTAMJAN FRONTIER 293
the Mesopotamian frontier towns, adding to each man's sti-
pend ten dinars, and giving to each a bounty of one hundred
dinars, in addition to the pay allotted to the different tribes. 188
He stationed in the town the necessary garrison, assigned
farms to the troops as fief and built the Kaludhiyah fort.
Constantine desists from Jaihdn. Constantine the
" tyrant", at the head of an army of more than 100,000
men, came to Jaihan; but hearing of the great number of
the Arabs, he desisted from it.
Nasr ibn-Malik and Nasr ibn-Sa'd accompany 'Abd-al-
Wahhab. I heard it said that 'Abd-al-Wahhab was accom-
panied in the expedition mentioned above by Nasr ibn-
Malik al-Khuza'i and Nasr ibn-Sa'd al-Katib, a freedman
of al-Ansar. Hence the poet's words :
" Thou hadst on thy sides two Nasrs : Nasr ibn-Malik and Nasr ibn-
Sa'd,
may thy victory [ Ar. nasr] be unparallelled !"
Muhammad ibn-Ibrahim goes against Malatyah. In the
year 141, Muhammad ibn-Ibrahim was sent to invade
Malatyah at the head of an army from the people of
Khurasan, with al-Musaiyab ibn-Zuhair leading the choice
men of the army. He posted a body of horsemen in Malat-
yah so that the enemy should not covet its possession. Those
of its old inhabitants who survived returned to it.
Ar-Rashid humiliates the Greeks. In the days of ar-
Rashid, the Greeks attempted the conquest of Malatyah
but to no avail. Ar-Rashid led an invasion, overcame and
humiliated them.
Mar'ash. When abu-'Ubaidah ibn-al-Jarrah was in
Manbij, he sent Khalid ibn-al-Walid to the region of Mar-
'ash 1 whose fort Khalid seized on the condition that its
1 Germanicia. Mas'udi, vol. viii, p. 295 ; IJaukal, p. 62.
294 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
holders be allowed to emigrate to another place, after which
he destroyed it. When Sufyan ibn-'Auf al-Ghamidi made
an expedition against the Greeks in the year 30, he started
from Mar'ash and made a tour in the land of the Greeks.
Mar'ash was built by Mu'awiyah and populated by him with
troops. After the death of Yazid ibn-Mu'awiyah, the
Greeks reiterated their attacks on the city and so the in-
habitants had to desert it. 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan, after
the death of his father, Marwan ibn-al-Hakam, and after
asserting his claim upon the caliphate, made terms with the
Greeks, agreeing to pay them a certain sum. But in the
year 74, Muhammad ibn-Marwan attacked the Greeks, and
thus the peace was broken.
In the year 75, Muhammad ibn-Marwan once more led
the summer campaign, and the Greeks went forth in Ju-
mada I from Mar'ash to al-A'mak [valleys]. The Moslems
marched against them under Aban ibn-al-Walid ibn-
'Ukbah ibn-abi-Mu'ait accompanied by Dinar ibn-Dinar,
a freedman of 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan and a governor
of Kinnasrin and its districts. The two armies met in
'Amk [valley] Mar'ash where a fierce battle was fought,
resulting in the defeat of the Greeks. The Moslems chased
them, massacring and capturing. In this same year, Dinar
came across a band of Greeks at Jisr [bridge] Yaghra about 189
ten miles from Shimshat, and routed them. Later al-'Ab-
bas ibn-al-Walid ibn-' Abd-al-Malik came to Mar'ash, built
it, fortified it, moved people into it and erected in it a cathe-
dral mosque. He imposed upon the people of Kinnasrin a
contingent of troops to be sent to Mar'ash.
When Marwan ibn-Muhammad during his caliphate was
busy fighting against Hims, the Greeks came against Mar-
'ash and invested it until its inhabitants made terms to evac-
uate it. Accordingly, they together with their families left
for Mesopotamia and the district of Kinnasrin, upon which
THE MESOPOTAMIAN FRONTIER 2g$
the Greeks destroyed the city. The 'dmil of Marwan over
the city was at that time al-Kauthar ibn-Zufar ibn-al-
Harith al-Kilabi and the " tyrant " was Constantine son of
Leon.1 When Marwan was through with Hims and had
destroyed its wall, he sent an army to rebuild Mar'ash. It
was rebuilt and made into a city ; but the Greeks led an in-
surrection and destroyed it.
In the caliphate of abu-Ja'far al-Mansur, S&lih ibn-'Ali
rebuilt Mar'ash and fortified it. He invited men to settle in
it, promising to increase their stipends. He was succeeded
by al-Mahdi who increased its garrison and armed the
people.
Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from al-Wakidi : — Mikha'il
[Michael] set out from Darb al-Hadath at the head of
80,000 men and came to 'Amk Mar'ash, killing, burning and
carrying away the Moslems as captives. Thence he advanced
to the gate of the city of Mar'ash in which there was 'Isa
ibn-'Ali who in that year was on an expedition. The f reed-
men of 'Isa together with the inhabitants of the city and
their troops sallied out against Michael and showered on
him their lancets and arrows. Michael gave way before
them and they followed him until they were outside the
city range; at which he turned upon them, killing eight of
'Isa's f reedmen and chasing the rest back to the city. Hav-
ing gone in, they closed its gates and Michael, after invest-
ing the city, departed and stopped at Jaihan. When Thuma-
mah ibn-al-Walid al-'Absi, who was then in Dabik and who
in the year 161 led the summer expedition, heard of that, he
despatched against Michael a strong detachment of cavalry
most of whom lost their lives. This aroused the anger of
al-Mahdi who began preparations for sending al-Hasan ibn-
Kahtabah on an expedition in the following year, i. e., 162.
1 Ar. Kustantin ibn- Alyun. He was the successor of Heraclius ;
Mabasin, vol. i, p. 84; Athir, vol. ii, p. 444.
296 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Hisn al-Hadath and Darb al-Hadath. Hisn al-Hadath
was one of the places reduced in the days of 'Umar by
Habib ibn-Maslamah who was sent by 'Iyad ibn-Ghanm.
After that, Mu'awiyah used to pay frequent attention to it
Darb al-Hadath was ominously called by the banu-Umaiyah 190
" as-Salamah " [safety] because they suffered a great
calamity in it, the calamity being, according to some, the
occurrence implied in the term Hadath [which means oc-
currence]. Others assert that the Moslems met on the way
a youth who fought against them with his companions,
hence the name Darb al-Hadath.1
At the time of the insurrection of Marwan ibn-Muham-
mad, the Greeks went and destroyed the city of al-Hadath
and drove its people out as they had done in the case of
Malatyah.
In the year 161, Michael went out to 'Amk Mar'ash, and
al-Mahdi directed al-Hasan ibn-Kahtabah to make a tour
• • • •
in the Byzantine Empire. Al-Hasan's hand lay so heavily
upon the people that they put his picture in their churches.
His entrance to the land of the Greeks [Asia Minor] was
through Darb al-Hadath where he examined the site of its
city [al-Hadath] which he was told was evacuated by
Michael. Al-Hasan chose that site for his city, and when
he departed he spoke to al-Mahdi regarding the reconstruc-
tion of this city as well as that of Tarsus. Al-Mahdi gave
orders that al-Hadath be built first. Among the compan-
ions of al-Hasan in this campaign were Mandal al-'Anazi '
— the Kufite traditionist, and Mu'tamir ibn-Sulaiman al-
Basri. Al-Hadath was rebuilt by 'Ali ibn-Sulaiman
ibn-'Ali, the governor of Mesopotamia and Kinnasrin, and
was called al-Muhammadiyah. The death of al-Mahdi
1 " The pass of the youth."
2 C/. Dhahabi, Mushtabih, p. 377.
THE MESOPOTAMIA^ FRONTIER 297
coincided with the completion of its building, so it is really
al-Mahdiyah as well as al-Muhammadiyah. Brick was the
material used in its construction. The death of al-Mahdi
fell in the year 169.
Al-Mahdi was succeeded by his son Musa-1-Hadi who
dismissed 'Ali ibn-Sulaiman and conferred the governor-
ship of Mesopotamia and Kinnasrin upon Muhammad ibn-
Ibrahim ibn-Muhammad ibn-'Ali. Since 'Ali ibn-Sulaiman
had by this time completed the building of the city of al-
Hadath, Muhammad assigned to it troops from Syria,
Mesopotamia and Khurasan, fixing forty dinars as the sti-
pend of each soldier. To these he assigned the houses as
fiefs, and bestowed three hundred dirhams on every one of
them. The city was completed in 169.
According to abu-1-Khattab, 'Ali ibn-Sulaim&n assigned
4,000 paid troops to al-Hadath and settled them in it,
transferring 2,000 men into it from Malatyah, Shimshat,
Sumaisat, Kaisum, Duluk and Ra'ban.
It was stated by al-Wakidi that when the building of al-
Hadath was completed, winter set in and rain and snow fell
in great quantities. The houses of the city, not being 191
strongly built or provided with the necessary precautions,
had their walls soon covered with cracks and fell to pieces.
The Greeks then occupied it and the troops together with
the people that were in it were scattered. Hearing that,
Musa conscripted a contingent of troops headed by al-Mu-
saiyab [not al-Musaiyib] ibn-Zuhair, another by Rauh ibn-
Hatim and still another by Hamzah ibn-Malik. Musa,
however, died before they were sent out.
After that, ar-Rashid became caliph, and he gave orders
to rebuild the city, fortify it, station a garrison in it and
assign to its fighters dwellings and lands as fiefs.
It was stated by others than al-W&kidi that when al-Ha-
dath was built, one of the great patricians of the Greeks
298 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
made a descent upon it with a strong host. The city was
built with bricks, one placed on top of the other, without
mortar intervening and which were damaged by the snow.
The lamil with all those in the city took to flight, and the
enemy entered it, putting its mosque to flames, destroying
the city and carrying away the movable possessions of the
people. When ar-Rashid became caliph, he rebuilt it.
I was informed by one from Manbij that ar-Rashid
wrote to Muhammad ibn-Ibrahim confirming him in the
work he was doing. Thus the erection of the city of al-
Hadath and its peopling were carried out by him on behalf
of ar-Rashid. Later, Muhammad was dismissed by ar-
Rashid.
Rahwat Mdlik. In the year 46, Malik ibn-'Abdallah al-
Khath'ami, nicknamed Malik as-Saw&'if [summer expe-
ditions] and who was a Palestinian, made an expedition to
the Byzantine territory and returned with great booty. On
his way back he stopped at a place called ar-Rahwat, fifteen
miles from Darb al-Hadath. There he spent three days
during which he sold the booty and divided its shares.
Therefore the place was called Rahwat Malik.
Marj 'Abd-al-Wahid. Marj 'Abd-al- Wahid was a pas-
ture-land devoted to the exclusive use of the Moslem cav-
alry, which after the erection of al-Hadath and Zibatrah
was of no more use and therefore was changed into a sown
land.
Zibatrah, Zibatrah was an old Greek fort that was re-
■ •
duced together with the old Hadath * fort by Habib ibn-
Maslamah-1-Fihri. The fort stood until it was destroyed
by the Greeks in the days of al-Walid ibn-Yazid. It was
then rebuilt, but not so strongly, therefore the Greeks made
another attack on it at the time of the insurrection of Mar-
1 Caetani, vol. iv, p. 60, note 1.
THE MESOPOTAMIAN FRONTIER 299
wan ibn-Muhammad and destroyed it. Al-Mansur built
it again and it was once more torn into pieces by the Greeks.
It was then rebuilt by ar-Rashid under the supervision of
Muhammad ibn-Ibrahim who stationed a garrison in it.
When al-Ma'mun became caliph, the Greeks made another 19a
descent on it and tore it into pieces, after which they made
a raid on the pasturing cattle of its holders and carried
away some cattle. Al-Ma'mun gave orders for repairing
and fortifying it. In the year 210, the deputies of the
Greek " tyrant " came asking for peace, which al-Ma'-
mun refused. In pursuance of his orders, his 'amils [lieu-
tenants] in the frontier fortresses made tours in Asia
Minor where they wrought heavy slaughter, subdued the
land and won many brilliant victories. One misfortune
was the loss of the life of Yakzan ibn-'Abd-al-A'la ibn-
Ahmad ibn-Yazid ibn-Asid as-Sulami.
In the days of al-Mu'tasim-Billah abu-Ish&k ibn-ar-
Rashid, the Greeks made a sally against Zibatrah 1 in the
course of which they killed the men, captured the women
and destroyed the city. This greatly aroused the anger of
al-Mu'tasim who chased them as far as 'Ammuriyah, de-
stroying many forts on the way. He camped against 'Am-
muriyah until he reduced it, putting its fighters to death and
carrying off the women and children as prisoners. He then
destroyed 'Ammuriyah, and ordered that Zibatrah be re-
built. He also fortified and garrisoned it. The Greeks
after that tried to reduce it but failed.
Hisn Mansur. According to abu-'Amr al-Bahili and
others the Mansur fort was named after Mansur ibn-Ja'-
wanah ibn-al-Harith al-'Amiri of Kais who had charge of
building and repairing it, and who occupied it in the days
of Marwan with a large host of the troops of Syria and
Mesopotamia in order to repulse the enemy.
1 Yakut, vol. ii, p. 914.
3qo THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
This same Mansur was governor of ar-Ruha when its
inhabitants rebelled in the early part of the [Abbasid]
dynasty and were besieged by al-Mansur, the 'amil of abu-
l-'Abbas over Mesopotamia and Armenia. When al-Man-
sur captured the city, Mansur took to flight ; but when he
was later given safe-conduct, he appeared on the scene.
When 'Abdallah ibn-'Ali dismissed abu-Ja'far al-Mansur,
'Abdallah made Mansur the chief of the guard in his dis-
trict. When 'Abdallah fled to al-Basrah, Mansur disap-
peared but was discovered in the year 141 and brought
before al-Mansur, who, on his way from Jerusalem, put
him to death at ar-Rakkah. According to others, Mansur
was given safe-conduct and appeared after the flight of
[Abdallah] ibn-'Ali. After this there were found letters
on him directed to the Greeks and betraying Islam. When
al-Mansur, in the year 141, arrived at ar-Rakkah from
Jerusalem, he sent someone who brought him ; and he was
beheaded at ar-Rakkah. Al-Mansur then departed for al-
Hashimiyah l at al-Kufah.
In the caliphate of al-Mahdi, ar-Rashid built the Man-
sur fort and stationed a garrison in it.
1 Yakut, vol. iv, p. 946; Baghdad under the Abbasid Caliphate, p. 5.
CHAPTER IV
Arabic made the Language of the State Registers 193
Greek remained the language of the state registers x
until the reign of 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan, who in the
year 81 ordered it changed. The reason was that a Greek
clerk desiring to write something and finding no ink urined
in the inkstand. Hearing this, 'Abd-al-Malik punished the
man and gave orders to Sulaiman ibn-Sa'd to change the
language of the registers. Sulaiman requested 'Abd-al-
Malik to give him as subsidy the khardj of the Jordan prov-
ince for one year. 'Abd-al-Malik granted his request and
assigned him to the governorship of the Jordan. No sooner
had the year ended, than the change of the language was
finished and Sulaiman brought the registers to 'Abd-al-
Malik. The latter called Sarjun [Sergius] and presented
to him the new plan. Sarjun was greatly chagrined and left
'Abd-al-Malik sorrowful. Meeting certain Greek clerks, he
said to them, " Seek your livelihood in any other profession
than this, for God has cut it off from you."
The total tax of the Jordan which was thus assigned as
subsidy 2 was 180,000 dinars, that of Palestine was 350,000;
that of Damascus 400,000; that of Hims with Kinnasrin
and the regions called to-day al-'Awasim, 800,000, and ac-
cording to others 700,000.
1 Ar. diwan which may also be used in the sense of office or bureau.
2 Ar. ma'unoh ; see Mubarrad, K&mil, p. 76, last line.
301
PART IV
ARMENIA
CHAPTER I
The Conquest of Armenia
Traditions have been communicated to me by Muham-
mad ibn-Isma'il of Bardha'ah and others on the authority
of abu-Bara' 'Anbasah ibn-Bahr al- Armani; by Muham-
mad ibn-Bishr al-Kali on the authority of his sheikhs; by
Barmak ibn-'Abdallah ad-Dabili, Muhammad ibn-al-Mu-
khaiyis al-Khilati and others on the authority of some well
versed in the affairs of Armenia. These traditions I here-
with transmit, having pieced them up together into one
whole, to wit : —
The four provinces. Shimshat, Kalikala, Khilat Arjish
and Bajunais constituted Armenia IV; the district of al- 194
Busfurrajan [Waspurakan], Dabil [Dwin], Siraj Tair and
Baghrawand constituted Armenia III; Jurzan [Georgia]
constituted Armenia II; as-Sisajan and Arran constituted
Armenia I.1 According to others, Shimshat alone consti-
tuted Armenia IV; Kalikala, Khilat, Arjish and B&junais,
Armenia III; Siraj Tair, Baghrawand, Dabil, and al-Bus-
furrajan, Armenia II; and as-Sisajan, Arrin [Albania],
and Taflis, Armenia I.2 Jurzan and Arran were held by the
Khazar, while the rest of Armenia was held by the Greeks
under the governorship of " the Lord of Armaniyakus ".
Kubddh ibn-Fairuz builds many cities. Al-Khazar used
from time to time to make raids and reach as far as ad-
Dinawar. Because of it, Kubadh ibn-Fairuz al- Malik3
1 The Encyclopaedia of Isldm, vol. i, p. 444.
* Khurdadhbih, pp. 122-123.
* i. e.t the king. He belonged to the Sassanian Dynasty.
305
3o6 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
despatched one of his great generals at the head of 12,000
men, who ravaged the land of Arran and conquered the
region lying between ar-Rass river and Sharwan. Ku-
badh then followed him and built in Arran the city of al-
Bailakan, the city of Bardha'ah — which is the capital of the
whole frontier region, and the city of Kabalah, i. e., al-
Khazar. After that he erected Sudd al-Libn [brick dam]
lying between the land of Sharwan and al-Lan gate. Along
this Sudd, he established 360 cities which fell into ruins
after the erection of the city of al-Bab wa-1-Abwab.
Anushinvan builds other cities. Kubadh was succeeded
■
by his son Anushirwan Kisra who built the cities of ash-
Shabiran and Maskat, and later al-Bab wa-1-Abwab x which
was called Abwab because it was built on a road in the
mountain. He settled in the places he built a people
whom he called as-Siyasijun.2 In the land of Arran, he es-
tablished Abwab Shakkan,8 al-Kamibaran, and Abwab ad-
Dudaniyah. Ad-Dudaniyah are a tribe who claim to be
descended from the banu-Dudan ibn-Asad ibn-Khuzaimah. 195
He also built ad-Durdhukiyah 4 which consisted of twelve
gates,5 each one of which was a castle of stone. In the land
of Jurzan he established a city, Sughdabil, which he popu-
lated with a body of as-Sughd [Sogdians] and Persians,
making it a fortified town. Next to the Greek lands in the
region of Jurz&n, he built a castle and called it Bab Fairuzi-
kubadh: another called Bab Ladhikah; still another Bab
1Derbend. See Meynard, Dictionnaire de la Perse, p. 68; Hama-
dhani, pp. 286-288; IJaukal, pp. 241-242.
1 C'/. St. Martin, Memoires sur VArminxe, vol. i, pp. 207-214.
»Hamadhani, p. 288, "Shakka"; Yakut, "Shaka"; Eaufcal, p. 254.
"Shakka".
4 Hamadhani, p. 288, " ad-Durzufciyah " ; St. Martin, vol. ii, p. 189.
6 Cf. Hamadhani, p. 288.
THE CONQUEST OF ARMENIA 307
Barikah which lies on the Tarabazundah sea [Black Sea].
He also erected Bab al-Lan, Bab Samsakhi,1 al-Jardaman
fort, and Samshulda fort. Moreover, Anushirwan conquered
all the forts of Armenia held by the Greeks, built and forti-
fied the city of Dabil, built an-Nashawa — the capital of the
al-Busfurrajan district, the fort of Wais and other castles
in the land of as-Sisajan including al-Kilab and Sahyunis
castles. In the forts and castles, he stationed Siyasijiyah
men noted for valor and efficiency in warfare.
Anushirwan builds a wall between his domain and that of
the Turks. Anushirwan then wrote to the king of the
Turks asking for reconciliation and peace and for action in
unison. In order to assure him of his friendliness, Anu-
shirwan sought his daughter's hand and expressed a desire
to be his son-in-law. Meanwhile, he sent him a maid of
his, who was adopted by one of his wives, and said she was
his daughter. Consequently, the Turk presented his daugh-
ter to Anushirwan and came to see him. The two met at
al-Barshaliyah where they caroused together for some days,
and each felt the other was friendly to him and expressed
his loyalty. Anushirwan ordered some of his friends in
whom he confided to wait for nightfall and set fire to a
part of the Turkish camp, which they did. In the morning,
the Turkish king complained to Anushirwan; but the latter
denied having ordered it or known that his men had done it.
After a few nights, Anushirwan gave his orders to repeat
the act, and his men did. The Turk grumbled so much at
the act that Anushirwan had to show sympathy for him 196
and apologized to him, upon which he was appeased. By
order of Anushirwan, fire was set in a corner of his own
camp where nothing but cottages of straw and twigs stood.
In the morning, Anushirwan grumbled to the Turk, saying,
1 Brosset, Histoire de la Georgie, vol. i, p. 238,
3o8 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
" Thy men were on the point of destroying my camp ; and
thou rewardest me by throwing suspicion upon me ! " The
Turk swore that he knew no reason for the act, upon which
Anushirwan addressed him, saying, " Brother, thy troops
and mine look with disfavor on the peace we made, because
they have thereby lost the booty depending on razzias and
wars that might be carried out between us. I fear they un-
dertake things to corrupt our hearts after our mutual agree-
ment of sincerity, so that we may once more have recourse
to enmity after our new blood relationship and our friend-
ship. I deem it wise, therefore, that thou allowest me to
build a wall between thee and me with one gate through
which none from us will go to you and from you to us, ex-
cept the ones thou wishest and we wish." The Turk ac-
cepted the proposal and left for his own land.
Anushirwan commenced building the wall. He built the
side of it that faced the sea with rock and lead. Its width
he made 300 dhira's, and its height reached the mountain
heights. He ordered that stones be carried in boats and
dropped into the sea, so that when they appeared above the
surface, he could build on them. The wall extended over a
distance of three miles in the sea. When the construction
was completed, he fixed on its entrance iron gates and en-
trusted it to one hundred horsemen to guard it. Before
this, it took 50,000 troops to guard the place. On this wall
he also set a mantelet. The Khakan * was later told, "Ami-
shirwan has deceived thee and given thee for wife one who
is not his daughter and fortified himself against thee " ; but
Khakan was no match for such wiles.
Anushirwan assigns kings. Anushirwan assigned kings,
stationed them in different districts, and conferred on each
one of them the governorship [made him Shah] of one dis-
1 The Turkish king.
THE CONQUEST OF ARMENIA 309
trict One of these was " Khakan al-Jabal " [lord of the
mountain] who bore the title " Sahib as-Sarir " * [holder
of the throne] and was named Wahrarzan-sh&h. Another
was the king of Filan surnamed Filan-shah. Others were
Tabarsaran-shah, the king of al-Lakz — surnamed Jar-
shan-shah — the king of Maskat (whose kingship has been
abolished), the king of Liran — surnamed Liran-shah — and
the king of Sharwan called Sharwan-shah. He also made 197
the chief of Bukh 2 its king, and the chief of Zirikiran its
king. The kings of Jabal al-Kabak 8 he left over their king-
doms and made terms with them, stipulating that they pay
an annual tribute.
Thus Armenia was in the hands of the Persians until the
appearance of Islam, at which time many Siyasijun aban-
doned their forts and cities which fell into ruins. The Kha-
zar and Greeks thus got possession of what was once in
their hands.
Kalikala. At a certain period, the Greek princes were
scattered about and some of them became like Muluk at-
Tawa'if,4 and one ruled over Armaniyakus. After the
death of the latter, his wife succeeded him and her name
was Kali.6 She built the city of Kalikala 6 which she named
Kalikalah. The meaning of the word is " the benevolence
of Kali/' She set her picture on one of the city gates. The
Arabs arabicized Kalikalah into Kalikala.
Kalikala reduced. When 'Uthman ibn-'Affan became
• •
caliph, he wrote to Mu'awiyah, his 'dmil over Syria and
1 Istakhri, p. 191, note f ; Mas'udi, vol. ii, pp. 41-42.
* St. Martin, vol. i, p. 76.
• Cf. Meynard, p. 437, " Qabq (Caucase) w.
4 Petty kings among whom the Persian kingdom was divided after
Alexander. Tabari, vol. i, pp. 704-713-
* Hamadhani, p. 292.
• Armen. Karin, modern Erzerum.
3i2 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
forts, carried away many prisoners and fell to dispute re-
garding the general leadership. The Syrians wanted to kill
Salman, hence the verse quoted above. The former report,
however, is more authentic and was orally communicated
to me by many from Kalikala and in writing by al-'Attaf
ibn-Sufyan abu-1-Asbagh, the kadi of Kalikala.
Habib kills al-Mauriydn. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from 199
'Abd-al-Hamid ibn-Ja'far's father: — Habib ibn-Maslamah
besieged the inhabitants of Dabil and camped around the
city. Al-MauriySn ar-Rumi * came against him ; but under
the cover of the night, Habib killed him and plundered
what was in his camp. Salman then joined Habib. The
authorities of this tradition believe that Habib fell upon the
Greek at Kalikala.
Kusan subdues Kalikala. Muhammad ibn-Bishr al-Kali
. • . •
and ibn-Warz al-Kali from the sheikhs of Kalikala: —
Ever since its conquest, the city of K&likala held out against
attacks until the year 133 in which "the tyrant" set out,
besieged Malatyah, destroyed its wall and expelled the
Moslems that were in it to Mesopotamia, after which he
encamped at Marj al-Hasa whence he directed Kusan al-
Armani against Kalikala. Kusan came and invested the
city, whose inhabitants at that time were few and whose
'amil was abu-Karimah. In the course of the siege, two
Armenian brothers who lived in the city made a breach
through a rampart in its wall, went out to Kusan and
brought him in to the city. Thus Kus&n subdued the city,
killed [many], took captives and razed it to the ground,
carrying off what he plundered to " the tyrant ". The cap-
tives he distributed among his companions.
Al-Mansur rebuilds and al-Mu'tasim fortifies Kalikala.
1 Patrician of Armaniyafcus which province is listed in De Goejc'i
edition of Baladhuri as a name of person.
THE CONQUEST OF ARMENIA 3^
According to al-Wakidi, in the year 139 al-Mansur gave
ransom1 for those of the captives of Kalikala who sur-
vived; and he rebuilt Kalikala, populated it, and returned
them into it. He also invited to it troops from Mesopo-
tamia and other places to live in it. In the caliphate of al-
Mu'tasim-Billah, the Greek " tyrant " came to Kalikala
and threw projectiles on its wall until it was on the point
of falling. Thereupon al-Mu'tasim had to spend 500,000
dirhams to make the city strong again.
The patricians of Khilat and Muks. After having cap-
tured Kalikala, Habib marched to Mirbala where the pa-
trician of Khilat brought him a statement written by 'Iyad
ibn-Ghanm, who had guaranteed to the patrician the secur-
ity of his life, possessions and country and had concluded
a treaty with him stipulating that the patrician should pay
tax. Habib sanctioned the terms of the statement. He then
occupied a house between al-Harak 2 and Dasht al-Warak.
The patrician of Khilat brought him the money he owed
and offered a present which Habib refused to accept. Ha-
bib then visited Khilat and passed to as-Sab&bah [ ?] •
where he was met by the chief of Muks,4 one of the dis-
tricts of al-Busfurrajan. Habib made peace with him in
exchange for an annual tax to be paid for his land, sent a 200
man with him and wrote him a statement of peace and
safety.
Arjish, Bdjunais and at-Tirrikh. To the villages of
- ■ 1 mini— — — i»^^^— ■ ^-^^^— ^—
Arjish and Bajunais, Habib sent a body of men who sub-
dued them and laid poll-tax on them. The leading men of
these villages came to Habib and made a treaty agreeing to
1 Ar. fdda bihitn ; see Mawardi, pp. 82 and 232.
1 St. Martin, vol. iy p. 101.
1 Original not clear.
4 St. Martin, vol. i, p. 175.
3I4 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
pay the kharaj on their lands. As for at-Tirrikh lake, he
did not interfere with it, and it was used by the public until
Muhammad ibn-Marwan ibn-al-Hakam became governor
of Mesopotamia and Armenia, upon which he took posses-
sion of its fish and sold them, making an income out of it
The lake after that became the property of Marwan ibn-
Muhammad and was thus lost to Muhammad.
Dabil and other towns sue for peace. Habib now came
to Azdisat,1 the chief village of al-Hurmuz,1 crossed Nahr
al-Akrad and encamped at Marj Dabil. Thence he sent the
cavalry against Dabil and marched until he reached its gate.
The people took to the fortifications and threw projectiles
on him. Habib set a mangonel against the city and used it
until they sued for peace and capitulation. This he granted
them. His cavalry wandered around, occupied Jurna,1
reached as far as Ashush, dhat-al-Lujum, al-Jabal Kuntah 4
and Wadi-1-Ahrar and subdued all the villages of Dabil.
He also despatched a force against Siraj Tair and against
Baghrawand whose patrician came and made terms, agree-
ing to pay an annual tribute, to be loyal to the Moslems, to
entertain them, and to aid them against the enemy. The
text of the treaty with Dabil ran as follows :
" In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful.
This is a treaty of Habib ibn-Maslamah with the Chris-
tians, Magians and Jews of Dabil, including those present
and absent. I have granted you safety for your lives, pos-
sessions, churches, places of worship, and city wall. Thus
ye are safe and we are bound to fulfil our covenant, so long
as ye fulfil yours and pay poll-tax and khar&j. Thereunto
1 " Aschdischad," St. Martin, vol. i, p. 101 ; Yakut, vol. i, p. I99>
" Ardashat ".
'Baladhuri reads "Kirmiz," which is a clerical error.
• Marasid, vol. i, p. 25.
4 Original not clear.
THE CONQUEST OF ARMENIA 3Ig
Allah is witness; and it suffices to have him for witness.
Signed by Habib ibn-Maslamah."
An-Nashawa and al-Busfurrajdn. Habib after this pro-
ceeded to an-Nashawa and took possession of it on terms
similar to those of Dabil. The patrician of al-Busfurrajan
came and made terms regarding all of his country together
with the land of Hasatiltah l [ ?] and Af aristah [ ?] , agree-
ing to pay a certain tax every year.
As-Sisajdn. Habib then moved to as-Sisajan* whose
people resisted him but were defeated. He also conquered
Wais ; and made terms with the holders of the forts at as- 201
Sisajan to the effect that they pay tax. He then proceeded
to Jurzan.
Dhat-al-Lujum. I was informed by certain sheikhs from
Dabil, among whom was Barmak ibn-'Abdallah, that Habib
ibn-Maslamah marched with his men bent on Jurzan. When
they got to dhat-al-Lujum, they left some of their horses
and mules to graze, leaving their bridles together in one
place. Suddenly, a band of the "uncircumcised" fell upon
them before they could bridle their animals. In the fight
that ensued, the "uncircumcised" drove the Moslems
away and seized the bridles together with as many horses
and mules as they could. Later, the Moslems returned to
them, massacred them and took back what has been carried
away from them. That is why this spot was called " dhat-
al-Lujum " [the place of the bridles].
As Habib was advancing against the patrician of Jur-
zan, he was met by a messenger of the patrician and the in-
habitants of the town, who presented a written message and
asked for a treaty of peace and security. Accordingly,
Habib wrote to them : —
1 Certain diacritical points missing.
' Meynard, p. 335.
3i6 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
" Your messenger, Nukla,1 came to me and my compan-
ions ' the Believers ' saying on your behalf that we are a
nation whom Allah has honored and given superiority,
which Allah did, great praise be to Allah, and prayer and
peace be on Muhammad his Prophet and noblest creature!
Ye also stated that ye would like to make peace with us.
As for your present, I have estimated its value and consid-
ered it a part of your tax. I have made a treaty of peace
with you and inserted one condition in it. If ye accept the
condition and live up to it, well and good. Otherwise ' an-
nounce ye a war waged by Allah and his Prophet * \ Peace
be to those who follow the proper guidance."
The treaty with the people of Taflis. Habib thence pro-
ceeded to Taflis [Tiflis] and made the following statement
of peace to its people : —
" In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful.
This is a statement from Habib ibn-Maslamah to the inhabi-
tants of Taflis which lies in Manjalis 8 at Jurzan al-Hur-
muz,4 securing them safety for their lives, churches, con-
vents, religious services and faith, provided they acknowl-
edge their humiliation and pay tax to the amount of one
dinar on every household. Ye are not to combine more
than one household into one in order to reduce the tax, nor
are we to divide the same household into more than one in
order to increase it. Ye owe us counsel and support against
the enemies of Allah and his Prophet to the utmost of your
ability, and are bound to entertain the needy Moslem for
one night and provide him with that food used by ' the peo-
ple of the Book ' and which it is legal for us to partake of.
1 Cf. Tabari, vol. i, p. 2674.
• Kor., 2 : 279.
8 Brosset, vol. i, pp. 245, 248.
4 and not " Kirmiz " as Baladhuri has it. See Tabari, vol. i, p. 2674-
THE CONQUEST OF ARMENIA ^y
If a Moslem is cut off from his companions and falls into
your hands, ye are bound to deliver him to the nearest body
of the ' Believers ', unless something stands in the way. 202
If ye return to the obedience 1 of Allah and observe prayer,
ye are our brethren in faith, otherwise poll-tax is incum-
bent on you. In case an enemy of yours attacks and sub-
jugates you while the Moslems are too busy to come to your
aid, the Moslems are not held responsible, nor is it a vio-
lation of the covenant with you. The above are your rights
and obligations to which Allah and his angels are witness
and it is sufficient to have Allah for witness."
The following is a copy of the treaty made by al-Jarrah
ibn-'Abdallah-l-Hakami with the people of Taflis :
" In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful.
This is a treaty made by al-Jarrah ibn-'Abdallah with the
inhabitants of Taflis in the district of Manjalis and the
province of Jurzan. They have shown me the treaty made
with them by Habib ibn-Maslamah to the effect that they
accept the humiliation of the tax, and that he made terms
with them regarding lands belonging to them, vineyards,
and mills, called Awara and Sabina in the district of Man-
jalis, and regarding Ta'am and Diduna in the district of
Kuhuwit in the province of Jurzan, stipulating that they
pay on these mills and vineyards a tax of 100 dirhams per
annum without repeating it. These terms of peace and se-
curity I put into effect and ordered that the sum be never
increased on them. Let no one, therefore, to whom this my
treaty is read increase the tax on them; so Allah wills.
Written by—."
Various places conquered by Habib. Habib conquered
Hawarih, Kasfaryabs [?],2 Kisal, Khunan, Samsakhi, al-
1 Tabari, vol. x, p. 2675 : u become Moslem ".
1 Lacking in diacritical points.
3i8 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Jardaman, Kastasji,1 Shaushit,2 and B&zalit,1 which capitu-
lated on the terms that the lives of the inhabitants be spared,
that places of worship and their walls be not molested and
that they pay annual tribute on their lands and persons.
The people of Kalarjit, Tharyalit,4 Khakhit,8 Khukhit,6 203
Artahal,7 and Bab al-Lal • also made terms with Habib.
As-Sanariyah and ad-Dudaniyah made terms, agreeing to
pay an annual tax.
Al-Bailakan. By order of 'Uthman, Salman ibn-
Rabi'ah-1-Bahili proceeded to Arran. Here he conquered
the city of al-Bailakan which capitulated on terms stipu-
lating that he guarantee the safety of their lives, posses-
sions and city walls, and that they pay poll-tax and kharaj.
Bardha'ah and other places. Thence Salman advanced to
Bardha'ah and camped on ath-Thurthur 9 river which flows
at a distance of less than one parasang from the city. The
inhabitants closed their city gates against him; and he made
an attempt on it for many days, making raids on its vil-
lages. It was the time for reaping the harvest. At last,
its people made terms similar to those of al-Bailakan and
opened their gates. Thus he made his entrance and occu-
pied the city. Salman then sent his cavalry which con-
quered Shi f shin, al-Misfawan, Odh, al-Misryan,10 al-Hur-
Brosset, vol. i, p. 512. '
St. Martin : " Schauscheth" ; cf. Kazwini, vol. ii, p. 413, line 20.
Brosset, vol. i, pp. 45, 86.
" Thrialeth," Brosset, vol. i, pp. 248, 285.
" Kakheth " in Brosset, /. /.
"Kukhet," Brosset, vol. i, pp. 3*5, 349; St Martin, vol. ii, p. 198L
Brosset, vol. i, p. 39.
St. Martin, vol. ii, p. 227.
St. Martin, vol. i, p. 87.
n Text not dear.
THE CONQUEST OF ARMENIA ^g
hilyan and Tabar, all of which are districts. Other places
in Arran were reduced. The Kurds of al-Balasajan x he sum-
moned to Islam ; but they fought against him and were sub-
jugated. Some were made to pay tax and others sadakah;
but the latter were few.
Shatnkur. I was informed by some people from
Bardha'ah that Shamkur was an ancient city to which
Salman ibn-Rabi'ah sent someone who reduced it. It was
well populated and flourishing until it was destroyed by
as-Sawardiyah, who after the departure of Yazid ibn-
Usaid from Armenia came together and became a source of
trouble and misfortune. In the year 240, the city was re-
built by Bugha, the freedman of al-Mu'tasim and the gov-
ernor of Armenia, Adharbaijan and Shimshat. He settled
in it people from al-Khazar who, because of their interest in
Islam came, and sought security. He also transplanted
merchants to it from Bardha'ah and called it al-Mutawak-
kiliyah.
Kabalah and other places. Salman thence advanced to
the junction of ar-Rass and al-Kurr behind Bardij. Cross-
ing al-Kurr he reduced Kabalah ; and the chief of Shakkan
and al-Kamibaran capitulated, agreeing to pay annual tax.
In like manner did the people of Khaizan,2 the king of 204
Sharwan and the other kings of al-Jibal, the people of Mas-
kat, ash-Shabiran and the city of al-Bab capitulate. The
city of al-Bab was closed after him. Khakan with his cav-
alry met Salman beyond al-Balanjar river. The latter was
killed with 4,000 Moslems who in that critical position were
heard shouting " Allah is great ! " 8
1 Yakut, vol. i, p. 173, and vol. ii, p. 780.
* St Martin, vol. i, pp. 175 seq. ; Yajcutf vol. ii, p. 507 : " Khaizar " ;
Mas'udi, vol. ii, pp. 39-40; Meynard, p. 350.
* Ya'kubi, vol. ii, p. 194.
320 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Salman the first kadi of al-Kufah. This Salman ibn-
Rabi'ah was the first to hold the position of kadi in al-
Kufah,1 where he spent forty days without hearing a case.
He transmitted traditions on 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab's au-
thority. Says ibn-Jumanah-1-Bahili referring to Salman
and Kutaibah ibn-Muslim :
" We have two tombs one at Balanjar
and another at Sin-Istan [China] and what a tomb that is !
The one who lies in China has brought about conquests in all places;
and the merits of the other cause abundant rain to £311." *
Among the companions of Salman at Balanjar was Kar-
zah ibn-Ka'b al-Ansari. It was he who carried the news of
Salman's death to 'Uthm&n.
Habib put by 'Uthtndn in charge of the frontier fortresses.
Having made these conquests in Armenia, Habib re-
ported his success to 'Uthman ibn-'Affan who received his
letter immediately after the news of Salman's death. 'Uth-
man was on the point of assigning Habib over all Armenia;
but he then deemed it best to put him in charge of the cam-
paigns on the frontiers of Syria and Mesopotamia, because
of his efficiency in doing what he intended to do. 'Uthman
conferred on Hudhaifah ibn-al-Yaman al-'Absi the gover-
norship of the frontier fortresses of Armenia; and the
latter left for Bardha'ah and sent his 'amils to the places
that lay between it and Kalikala and up to Khaizan. He
then received TJthman's message instructing him to depart
and leave in his place Silah ibn-Zufar al-'Absi who was in
his company. Hudhaifah assigned Silah as his successor.
Habib returned to Syria and began his campaigns against
the Greeks. He settled in Hims, but Mu'4wiyah moved him
to Damascus, where he died in the year 42, aged 35. Once
1 Gottheil, Egyptian Cadis, page VI.
* For an explanation see ibn-Kutaibah, KitSb al-Mo'&rif, p. 221.
THE CONQUEST OF ARMENIA 321
when 'Uthman was besieged, Mu'awiyah sent this Habib
at the head of an army to his relief. Having arrived in
Wadi-1-Kura, Habib heard of the death of 'Uthm&n and 205
took his way back.1
Various governors of Adharbaijan and Armenia.
'Uthman appointed al-Mughirah ibn-Shu'bah governor of
Adharbaijan2 and Armenia, but dismissed him later, and
appointed al-Kasim ibn-Rabi'ah ibn-Umaiyah ibn-abi-as-
Salt ath-Thakafi governor of Armenia. Others say he ap-
pointed 'Amr ibn-Mu'awiyah ibn-al-Muntafik al-'Ukaili
governor of Armenia ; and still others say that for 1 5 years
after al-Mughirah, one of the banu-Kilab ruled over Arme-
nia, and that he was succeeded by al-'Ukaili. Under 'Ali
ibn-abi-Talib, al-Ash'ath ibn Kais ruled over Armenia and
Adharbaijan. He was followed by 'Abdallah ibn-Hatim
ibn-an-Nu'man ibn-'Amr al-Bahili who ruled over it in the
name of Mu'awiyah. 'Abdallah died in it and was suc-
ceeded by his brother 'Abd-al-'Aziz ibn-Hatim ibn-an-Nu'-
man, who built the city of Dabil, fortified it and enlarged its
mosque. He also built the city of an-Nashawa and repaired
the city of Bardha'ah. Others say he rebuilt Bardha'ah
and deepened the trenches around it. He also rebuilt the
city of al-Bailakan. These cities were dilapidated and
ready to fall into ruins. According to others, it was Mu-
hammad ibn-Marwan who in the days of 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-
Marwan rebuilt Bardha'ah. Al-Wakidi states that 'Abd-al-
Malik built Bardha'ah under the supervision of Hatim ibn-
an-Nu'man al-Bahili or his son. This 'Abd-al-Malik ap-
pointed 'Uthm&n ibn-al-Walid ibn-'Ukbah ibn-abi-Mu'ait to
the governorship of Armenia.
1 Ghazarian, "Armenien unter der Arab Herrschaft," Zeitschrift fur
Armen. PhUoi, vol. ii, pp. 177-182 (Marburg, 1904).
1 Mcynard, pp. 14-17.
322 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Armenia rebels. During the insurrection of ibn-az-
Zubair, Armenia rose and its nobles l with their followers
threw off their allegiance. When Muhammad ibn-Marwan
held under his brother 'Abd-al-Malik the governorship of
Armenia, he led the fight against them and won the victory,
slaughtering and taking captives. Thus, he subdued the
land. He promised those who survived higher stipends than
the ordinary soldiers' pay. For that purpose they assem-
bled in churches in the province of Khilat where he locked
them in and put guards on the door, and then he frightened
them. In this campaign umm-Yazid ibn-Usaid was taken
captive from as-Sisaj&n, she being the daughter of as-Sisa-
jan's patrician.
'Adi governor of Armenia. Sulaiman ibn-' Abd-al-Malik
made 'Adi ibn-' Adi ibn-'Amirah M-Kindi governor of Ar-
menia. 'Adi ibn-'Amirah was one of those who had left
'AH ibn-abi-Talib and settled in ar-Rakkah. He was later
made the governor of Armenia by 'Umar ibn-' Abd-al-' Aziz.
This 'Adi was the one after whom the Nahr 'Adi at al-
Bailakan was named. According to others, the 'amil of
'Umar was Hatim ibn-an-Nu'man, but that is not con-
firmed. 206
Mi'lak and al-Harith as governors. Yazid ibn-'Abd-al-
Malik conferred the governorship on Mi'lak ibn-Saffar al-
Bahrani, but he later dismissed him and assigned al-Harith
ibn-'Amr at-Ta'i, who made an incursion against the in-
habitants of al-Lakz8 conquering the district of Hasma-
d£n.4
Al-Jarrah as governor. When al-Jarrah ibn-'Abdallah
1 Ar. ahrar, the class that constituted the aristocracy of Armenia
before the Persian rule; see Yakut, vol. i, pp. 222, 438.
» Tabari, vol. ii, p. 887 : " IJmairah M.
• Yakut, vol. iv, p. 364.
* " Jashmadan," Istakhri, p. 187.
THE CONQUEST OF ARMENIA 323
al-Hakami of Madhhij became governor of Armenia, he
stopped at Bardha'ah where his attention was called to the
different measures and weights used by the people and
which he fixed according to the standards of justice and
honesty introducing a new measure, called al-Jarrahi, with
which they deal until to-day. After crossing al-Kurr,1 he
marched until he went over the river known by the name of
as-Samur and came to al-Khazar, among whom he wrought
a great slaughter. He also fought against the inhabitants
of the land of Hamzin 2 and made terms with them stipu-
lating that they be transplanted to the district of Khaizan
where he gave them two villages. He then attacked the
people of Ghumik 8 and captured some of them. Turning
back, he came to Shakka, and his army spent the winter at
Bardha'ah and al-Bailakan. Al-Khazar assembled their
troops and crossed ar-Rass.4 He fought against them in
Sahra' [desert] Warthan, and when they withdrew to the
region of Ardabil 5 he engaged them in battle at a distance
of four parasangs from Armenia. After a three days'
battle, he suffered martyrdom together with his men, and
therefore was the river called Nahr al-Jarrih. A bridge
spanning it also bore the same name.
Maslamah as governor. Hisham ibn-'Abd-al-Malik after
that appointed Maslamah ibn-'Abd-al-Malik to the gover-
norship of Armenia, put at the head of the van of his [Mas-
lamah's] army Sa'id ibn-'Amr ibn-Aswad al-Jurashi, and
accompanied him by Ishak ibn-Muslim al-'Ukaili with his
brothers, Ja'wanah ibn-al-Harith ibn-Khalid of the banu-
1 Istakhri, p. 187.
* M yamrin," Mahasin, vol. i, p. 318.
»" Ghumik," Istakhri, p. 185; cf. Mas'udi, vol. ii, p. 40; "'AmikM in
Yakut, vol. i, p. 438.
* Istakhri, p. 187 ; Yakut, vol. ii, p. 779-
1 Meynard, pp. 21-22.
324 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Rabi'ah ibn-'Amir ibn-Sa'sa'ah, Dhufafah and Khilid —
the two sons of 'Umair ibn-al-Hubab as-Sulami — al-Furat
ibn-Salman al-Bahili, and al-Walid ibn-al-Ka'ka' al-'Absi.
Sa'id engaged in conflict with al-Khazar who were at this
time besieging Warthan, and forced them to withdraw,
putting them to flight Al-Khazar came to Maimadh in
Adharbaijan; and as Said was preparing for the conflict
with them, he received a message from Maslamah ibn-
'Abd-al-Malik blaming him for attacking al-Khazar
before his [Maslamah's] arrival, and informing him that
he had assigned in his place over the army 'Abd-al-Malik
ibn-Muslim al-'Ukaili. As soon as Sa'id turned over the
army to his successor, he was arrested by Maslamah's mes-
senger who fettered him and carried him to Bardha'ah
where he was thrown into its prison. Al-Khazar left and 207
Maslamah followed them. When Maslamah communicated
the news to Hisham, Hish&m wrote back :
"Dost thou leave them at Maimadh where thou canst see them,
and then seek them beyond the limit of soil [where sand begins] V
Thereupon Hisham ordered that al- Jurashi be released from
prison.
Maslamah made peace with the people of Khaizan, and
by his order, its fort was dismantled. He appropriated in
it estates for himself. It is known to-day by the name of
Hauz Khaizan. The kings of al-Jibal also made peace with
him. The Shahs of Sharwan, Liran, Tabar sarin, Filan
and Jarshan presented themselves before him; and so did
the chief of Maskat. Maslamah, thereupon, betook himself
to the city of al-Bab, which he reduced. In its castle were
a thousand families of al-Khazar whom he besieged and
against whom he hurled stones and then pieces of iron
shaped like stones. All that, however, was of no avail. He,
therefore, resorted to the spring, the water of which Ami-
THE CONQUEST OF ARMENIA 325
i
shirwan had conducted into their cistern, and slew on it
cows and sheep throwing the contents of their stomachs and
some assafcetida into the water. It did not take the water
more than one night before it bred worms, became vitiated
and corrupted. Therefore, the holders of the castle fled
under the cover of the night and vacated the castle. In the
city of al-Bab wa-l-Abw4b, 24,000 Syrians were settled by
Maslamah ibn-'Abd-al-Malik and assigned stipends. Ac-
cordingly, the inhabitants of al-Bab to-day do not allow any
'a mil to enter their city unless he has money to distribute
among them. He, moreover, built a granary for food, an-
other for barley, and an armory. He ordered that the cis- i
tern be filled with earth, repaired the city, and provided it J
with embattlements. In the company of Maslamah was j
Marwan ibn-Muhammad who took part in the attack against \
al-Khazar and distinguished himself in fighting. After 1
Maslamah, Hisham appointed Sa'id al-Jurashi who spent ,
two years in the frontier region. J
Marwan as governor. Marwan ibn-Muhammad x then be-
came the ruler of the frontier and took up his abode at 1
Kisal. Marwan was the one who built the city of Kisal.
This city lies 40 parasangs from Bardha'ah and 20 from
Taflis. Marwan then entered the country of al-Khazar
next to Bab al-Lan and made Asids ibn-Zafir as-Sulami
abu-Yazid, accompanied by the kings of al-Jibal, enter it
from the side of al-Bab wa-1-Abwab. Then Marwan made
an incursion on the Slavs who were in the land of al-Kha- 208
zar and captured 20,000 families whom he settled in Kha-
khit When they later put their commander to death and
took to flight, Marwan pursued and slaughtered them.
When the chief of al-Khazar learned of the great num-
1 Brosset, vol. i, pp. 238 seq.
* M Usaid " in Duraid, p. i$7, line before last.
326 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
ber of men with whom Marwan had swept over his land and
of their equipment and strength, his heart was filled with
cowardice and fear. When Marwan came close to him,
he sent him a messenger inviting him to " Islam or war ",
to which he replied, " I have accepted Islam. Send there-
fore someone to present it to me." Marwan did so. The
chief professed Islam and made a treaty with Marwan ac-
cording to which Marwan confirmed him as ruler of his
kingdom. Marwan with a host of al-Khazar accompanied
the chief; and al-Khazar were made to settle in the plain
of the province of al-Lakz between as-Samur and ash-Sha-
biran.
The land of as-Sarir. After that, Marwan made his
entrance to the land of as-Sarir, slaughtered its inhabitants,
and reduced certain forts in it. Its king offered him sub-
mission and allegiance and made terms, agreeing to give
every year 1,000 youths — 500 lads and 500 maids — with
black hair and eyebrows and with long eyelashes, together
with 100,000 modii l to be poured in the granaries of al-
Bab. Marwan took from him a pledge.
The people of Tuman made terms with Marwan, agree-
ing to give every year 100 youths — 50 maids and 50 lads-
each 5 spans in height, with black hair and eyebrows and
with long eyelashes, together with 20,000 modii for the
granaries.
The land of Zirikiran. He then entered the land of
Zirikiran,2 whose king made terms, agreeing to offer fifty
youths, and 10,000 modii for the granaries every year.
Thence he proceeded to the land of Hamzin which refused
to make terms and whose fort, after an investment of one
month, he reduced. He then set fire to the fort and de-
1 Wheat measure.
'Original not clear.
THE CONQUEST OF ARMENIA 327
stroyed it The terms agreed upon were that they give 500
youths only once and not to be responsible for such a gift
any more, and that they carry 30,000 modii every year to
the granaries of al-Bab. Then he advanced to Sindan,1
which capitulated on condition that it offer 100 youths to be
given by its chief only once and not to be responsible for
such a gift in the future, together with 5,000 modii to be
carried every year to the granaries of al-Bab. On the fol-
lowers of the Shah of Tabarsaran, Marwan assessed 10,000
modii to be carried per annum to the granaries of al-Bab ;
but on the SMh of Filan he did not assess anything, because 209
of his distinction in warfare, ability in conflict and the
praiseworthiness of his cause.
Al-Lakz, Khirsh and other places. Marwan thence made
a descent on al-Lakz castle [whose chief] had refused to
pay anything of what was assessed, had set out to meet the
chief of al-Khazar and was killed by a shepherd who shot
an arrow at him without knowing him. The people of al-
Lakz then made terms, agreeing to give 20,000 modii to be
carried to the granaries. Having appointed Khashram as-
Sulami as their ruler, Marwan came to the castle of the
chief of Sharwan which was called Khirsh and which lay \
on the sea shore. The chief rendered submission and agreed i
to leave the height.2 Marwan imposed 10,000 modii on the \
people of Sharwan per annum, and made it a condition on '
their chief to be in the van of the army when the Moslems ]
start the attack against al-Khazar, and in the rear when
they return ; and on the Shah of Filan that he should only
take part in the attack ; on the Shah of Tabarsaran that he
be in the rear when the Moslems start, and in the van when
they return.
1 Lacking in diacritical points, d'Ohsson, p. 68; "Misdar" in Mahasin,
vol. i, p. 318.
1 Surrender the castle.
328 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Thabit rebels. Marwan then advanced to ad-Dudaniyah
and slaughtered its people. The news of the death of al-
Walid ibn-Yazid then came to him, and Thabit ibn-Nu'aim
al-Judhami rose against him.1 Musafir al-Kassab, who
was one of those established in al-Bab by ad-Dahhak al-
Khariji [the rebel], now came to Thabit, espoused his
cause and was made by him governor over Armenia and
Adharbaijan. Musafir then came to Ardabil in disguise,
where he was joined by a group of the ash-Shurat, and they
all came to Bajarwan* in which they found people with sim-
ilar views and were joined by them. Thence they came to
Warth&n from whose inhabitants a large body of men,
who held similar views, joined them; and they all crossed
over to al-Bailakan where they were joined by a large
crowd holding similar views. Marwan then came to Yu-
nan.8 Ishak ibn-Muslim was made governor of Armenia by
Marw&n ibn-Muhammad and never ceased to fight against
Musafir who was at al-Kilab castle in as-Sisajan.
When the " blessed dynasty " appeared and abu-Ja'far
al-Mansur was made ruler of Mesopotamia and Armenia in
the caliphate of as-Saffah abu-1-' Abbas, he sent against
Mus&fir and his followers a general from Khurasan, who
fought them until he overpowered them and slew Musafir.
The inhabitants of al-Bailakan, who had fortified them-
selves in al-Kilab castle under the leadership of Kadad ibn-
Asfar al-Bailakani, surrendered.
The governorship of Yazxd. When al-Mansur became
caliph, he made Yazid ibn-Usaid as-Sulami governor of
Armenia. The latter reduced Bab al-Lan and stationed in 210
1 Tabari, vol. ii, pp. 1892 seq.
* Meynard, p. 74.
8 First syllable mutilated in the original; cf. Istakhri, p. 192; tJauVal»
p. 251.
THE CONQUEST OF ARMENIA 329
it a cavalry guard with stipends. He also subdued as-Sa-
nariyah, whose inhabitants paid kharaj. In compliance
with al-Mansur's orders, he married the daughter of the
king of al-Khazar. She gave birth to a child which did not
live ; she herself died in child-birth. Yazid sent someone to
the naphtha and salt mines of the land of Sharwan and
levied tax on them. He put someone in charge of them.
He also built the city of Arjil as-Sughra [the Less] and
Arjil al-Kubra [the Great], and settled people from Pales-
tine in them.
AshShamdkhtyah. Muhammad ibn-Isma'il from certain
sheikhs from Bardha'ah: — Ash-Shamakhiyah * which lay
in the province of Sharwan was thus called after ash-Sha-
makh ibn-Shuja', who was the king of Sharwan during the
rule of Sa'id ibn-Salim a al-Bahili over Armenia.
Al-Hasan suppresses the revolt. Muhammad ibn-Isma'il
from certain sheikhs: — After the dismissal of ibn-Usaid
and Bakkar ibn-Muslim al-'Ukaili, and during the gover-
norship of al-Hasan ibn-Kahtabah at-Ta'i, the Armenians
broke off their allegiance under their chief Musha'il8 al-
Armani. Al-Mansur sent reinforcements under 'Amir ibn-
Ism4'il. Al-Hasan engaged himself in fight with Musha'il
and killed him, dispersing his troops. Things went on
well with al-Hasan. The Nahr al-Hasan in al-Bailakan is
• • •
named after this al-Hasan ; and so are the Bagh * at Bar-
dha'ah named Bagh al-Hasan, and the crown-lands known
as al-Hasaniyah.
Different governors of Armenia. 'Uthman ibn-'Umarah
ibn-Khuraim succeeded al-Hasan ibn-Kahtabah, and then
• • • • '
1 Mukaddasi, p. 276; Istakhri, p. 192; Meynard, p. 353: " Shamakhi."
* M Salm," Tabari, vol. iii, p. 305.
1 St. Martin, vol. i, p. 342 ; Brosset, vol. i, p. 159.
4 Persian — garden, vineyard.
330 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
came Rauh ibn-Hatim al-Muhallabi, Khuzaimah ibn-Kha-
zim, Yazid ibn-Mazyad ash-Shaibani, 'Ubaidallah ibn-
al-Mahdi, al-Fadl ibn-Yahya, Sa'id ibn-Salim, and Muham-
mad ibn- Yazid ibn-Mazyad. Of these rulers, Khuzaimah
was the severest. It was he who introduced the system by
which Dabil and an-Nashawa paid land tax according to
the area, not the produce. The Armenian patricians did
not cease to hold their lands as usual, each trying to protect
his own region ; and whenever a 'dtnil came to the frontier
they would coax him; and if they found in him purity and
severity, as well as force and equipment, they would give
the khardj and render submission, otherwise they would 211
deem him weak and look down upon him.
The governorship of Khalid ibn-Yazid. In the caliphate
of al-Ma'mun, the Armenian patricians were under the rule
of Khalid ibn-Yazid ibn-Mazyad, who accepted their pres-
ents and associated personally with them. This corrupted
them and encouraged them against the 'dmils of al-Ma'-
mun who came after him.
Al-Hasan ibn- Alt over the frontier region. Al-Mu'tasim-
Billah appointed to the governorship of the frontier region
al-Hasan ibn-'Ali-l-Badhaghisi, better known as al-Ma1-
muni, who let its patricians and nobles go their way, and
dealt so leniently with them that they became more disloyal
to the Sultan and more severe on the people who came
under their rule. Jurz&n was subdued by Ishak ibn-Isma'il
ibn-Shu'aib, a freedman of the banu-Umaiyah. Sahl ibn-
Sanbat, the patrician, rose against the (dmil of Haidar ibn-
Kawus al-Af shin over Armenia and killed his secretary and
had a narrow escape by flight. Armenia after this was
ruled by 'dmils who would remit to its people what was
due from them, and accept whatever khardj could be of-
fered.
The governorship of Yiisuf ibn-Muhammad. Two years
THE CONQUEST OF ARMENIA 33 1
after al-Mutawakkil became caliph, he conferred the gov-
ernorship of Armenia upon Yusuf ibn-Muhammad ibn-
Yusuf al-Marwazi. As he passed through Khilat, Yusuf
seized its patrician Bukrat ibn-Ashut and carried him off to
Surra-man-ra'a, which act greatly offended the patricians,
nobles and feudal lords [Ar. tnutaghallibah]. Later a lamil
of his, named al-'Ala* ibn-Ahmad, went to a convent at as-
Sisajan, called Dair al-Akdah, which was highly respected
and richly endowed with gifts by the Armenian Christians,
and carried away all what was in it and oppressed its occu-
pants. This act was too much for the patricians, who held
communication with each other and urged each other to
throw off their allegiance and rise in revolt. They insti-
gated al-Khuwaithiyah,1 who were " uncircumcised " and
were known by the name of al-Artan, to fall upon Yusuf,
and urged them against him in revenge for the carrying-
away of their patrician Bukrat. Meanwhile, every one of
the patricians and feudal lords sent them horses and men to
help them bring that about. Accordingly, they fell upon
Yusuf at Tarun, after he had distributed his followers in
the villages, and slew him, carrying away all that his camp
contained.
The governorship of Bugha the Elder. Al-Mutawakkil
assigned to the governorship of Armenia Bugha-1-Kabir
[the Elder] who, arriving in Badlis, seized Musa ibn-Zura- 212
rah who, in revenge for Bukrat, had favored and taken part
in killing Yusuf. Bugha warred against al-Khuwaithiyah,
slaughtering a great number, and carrying many away as
captives. He then invested Ashut ibn-Hamzah ibn-J&jik,
the patrician of al-Busfurrajan, at al-Bak,2 compelled him
to surrender his castle and carried him as captive to Surra-
1 St Martin, vol. i, p. 100.
* Khurdadhbih, p. 123, line 11 ; Tabari, vol. Hi, p. 1410, line 3.
I
1
I
'I
332 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
man-ra'a. He then advanced to Jurzan and succeeded in
laying hold on Ishak ibn-Isma'il, whom he kept in confine-
ment until his death. Bugha reduced Jurzan, and carried
away those Christians and non-Christians of Arran, of the
elevated region of Armenia/ and of as-Sisaj&n, who be-
longed to the revolutionary party. Thus the political state
of affairs in that frontier region became so quiet as never
before. In the year 241, he came to Surra-man-ra'a.
lText corrupt
PART V
NORTHERN AFRICA
CHAPTER I
The Conquest of Egypt and al-Maghrib [Mauri-
tania]
'Amr moves against Egypt. After the battle of al-Yar-
muk, 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi laid siege to Caesarea [Kaisariyah].
When Yazid ibn-abi-Sufyan assumed power, 'Amr left his
son in his place at Caesarea and led, all of his own accord,
an army of 3,500 to Egypt. 'Umar was angry because of it
and wrote to him, rebuking and reprimanding him for fol-
lowing his own opinion, without consulting 'Umar, and or-
dering him to return home in case the message was received
before his arrival in Egypt. 'Amr, however, received the
message in al-'Arish.1 It is asserted by others that 'Umar
wrote to 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi, ordering him to proceed to
Egypt. 'Amr received the message as he was besieging
Caesarea. The one who delivered the message was Sharik
ibn-' Abdah, to whom 'Amr gave 1 ,000 dinars, which Sharik
refused to accept. 'Amr asked him to conceal the matter
and not disclose it to 'Umar.
Al-Fustdt. The advance of 'Amr against Egypt took
place in the year 19. He first stopped at al-'Arish and then
proceeded to al-Farama',2 in which were troops ready for
the fight. 'Amr fought and defeated them, taking posses-
sion of their camp. Thence he advanced straight on to al-
1 Al-Makrizi, al-Khitat, vol. ii, p. 63 (Cairo, 1325) : "Rafj "; Zaidin,
Ta'rikh Mist al-tfadith, vol. i, p. 77; "Rafh . . . modern Raf\ ten
hours' journey from al-'Arish."
2 Pelusium. Mafrasin, vol. i, p. 8.
335
336 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Fustat and camped at the myrtle gardens, as the people of 213
al-Fustat had dug moats. The name of the city was Alyu-
nah,1 but the Moslems called it Fustat because they said,
" This is the meeting place [ Ar. fustat] of the people, and
the place where they assemble." Others say that 'Amr
pitched a tent [also fustat] in it, and it bore its name from
it1
As 'Amr ibn-al-Asi was besieging al-Fustat, he was
joined by az-Zubair ibn-al-'Auwam ibn-Khuwailid at the
head of 10,000— others say 12,000 men — among whom were
Kh&rijah ibn-Hudhaf ah-1-' Adawi and 'Umair ibn-Wahb al-
j Jumahi. Az-Zubair was on the point of leading an incur-
' sion and wanted to go to Antioch; but 'Umar said to him,
} " Abu-'Abdallah, wouldst thou like to take the governor-
» ship of Egypt?" To this az-Zubair replied, " I do not
care for it, but would like to go there on a holy war and co-
operate with the Moslems. If I find that 'Amr has already
reduced it, I would not interfere with his affairs, but would
go to some sea-coast and keep post at it ; but if I find him in
the struggle, I shall fight on his side." With this under-
standing, he left
Az-Zubair led the attack on one side, and 'Amr ibn-al-
'Asi on the other. Finally az-Zubair brought a ladder and
I climbed on it until, with his sword unsheathed, he looked
, down upon the fort and exclaimed, " Allah is great ! " and
so did the Moslems exclaim and follow him up. Thus he
took the fort by assault, and the Moslems considered it legal
to take all that was in it. 'Amr made its holders dhimtnis,
imposed a poll-tax on their person and kharaj on their land,
and communicated that to 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab who en-
dorsed it. Az-Zubair marked certain lots in Misr [Old
1 Yafcut, vol. i, pp. 355, 450.
* Makrizi, vol. ii, pp. 75-7&
THE CONQUEST OP EGYPT AND AL-MAGHRIB 337
Cairo] for himself [ikhtatta] and built a well-known man-
sion in which 'Abdallah ibn-az-Zubair resided when he in-
vaded If rikiyah l in the company of ibn-abi-Sarh. The lad-
der which az-Zubair used is still in Misr.
'Affan ibn-Muslim from Hisham ibn-'Urwah: — Az-
Zubair was sent to Misr ; and when he was told there were
in it warfare and pest, he replied, " We have come here only
for warfare and pest." The Moslems put ladders up and
climbed on them.
'Amr an-Nakid from Yazid ibn-abi-Habib: — 'Amr ibn-
al-'Asi entered Egypt with 3,500 men. When 'Umar ibn-
al-Khattab heard about the situation in Egypt, he was af-
fected with solicitude and fear and despatched az-Zubair
ibn-al-'Auwam at the head of 12,000 men. Az-Zubair 214
took part in the conquest of Misr and marked out in it cer-
tain lots.2
The division of the land. 'Amr an-Nakid from Sufyan
ibn-Wahb al-Khaulani: — When we conquered Misr with-
out making a covenant with it, az-Zubair rose and said to
'Amr, " Divide it " ; but 'Amr refused. Then az-Zubair
said, " By Allah, thou shouldst divide it as the Prophet
divided Khaibar." 'Amr wrote that to 'Umar who wrote
back, saying, " Leave it as it is, so that the descendants of
the descendants * may profit by it."
A tradition to the same effect was communicated to me
by 'Abdallah ibn-Wahb on the authority of Sufyan ibn-
Wahb.
'Amr and az-Zubair conquer Egypt. Al-Kasim ibn-Sal-
lam from Yazid ibn-abi-Habib: — 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi entered
1 Africa = Tunis. Ibn-'Adhari, al-Bay&n al-Mughrib, vol. if pp. 3
seq.
* Ar. khifaf. See Makrizi, vol. ii, pp. 76 seq.
* Ar. hdbal al-habalah. See Mutarrizi, p. 105 ; Caetani, vol. iv, p. 247 ;
Makrizi, vol. ii, p. 72, line 23 ; p. 73, line 25 ; an-Nihdyah, vol. i, p. 198.
338 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Egypt at the head of 3,500 men. Just before that, 'Umar
was affected with solicitude and fear and sent az-Zubair ibn-
al-'Auwam at the head of 12,000 men. Az-Zubair took part
with 'Amr in the conquest of Egypt and marked out for
himself two lots in Misr and Alexandria.
Ibrahim ibn-Muslim al-Khawarizmi from 'Abdallah ibn-
'Amr ibn-al-'Asi : — The latter said, " There is a disagree-
ment regarding the conquest of Misr: some say it was
conquered by force, and others by capitulation. The fact
is that my father ['Amr ibn-al-'Asi] arrived in it and was
resisted by the people of Alyunah. He finally took posses-
sion of it by force and led the Moslems in. Az-Zubair was
the first to climb its fort. The chief of Misr said to ray
father, ' We have heard of what ye did in Syria and how ye
assessed poll-tax on the Christians and Jews, leaving the
land in the hands of its owners to utilize it and pay its
khardj. If ye treat us the same way, it would do you more
good than to kill, capture and expel us.' My father con-
sulted with the Moslems and they all advised him to accept
the terms, with the exception of a few men who asked him
to divide the land among them. Accordingly, he assessed
on every adult, excepting the poor, two dinars as poll-tax,
and on every land-owner, in addition to the two dinars, 215
three irdabbs of wheat, two kists of oil, two kists of honey
and two kists of vinegar, to be given as a subsistence allow-
ance to the Moslems, and gathered in the public house of
provision [ddr-ar-rizk], where it is divided among them. A
census was taken of the Moslems, and the inhabitants of
Misr were required to provide every one of the Moslems
with a woolen upper gown, an upper cloak or turban,
breeches and a pair of shoes * per annum. Instead of the
woolen gown, a Coptic robe would do. To this end, a state-
1 Dozy, Noms des Vitements, s. v. jubbah, burnus, 'am&mah, jtrwtf
and khuff.
THE CONQUEST OF EGYPT AND AL-MAGHRIB 339
ment was written, in which it was stipulated that so long as
they lived up to these terms, their women and children
would neither be sold nor taken captives, and their posses-
sions and treasures would be kept in their hands.1 The
statement was submitted to 'Umar, the ' Commander of the
Believers/ who endorsed it. Thus, the whole land became
khardj-tend. Because, however, 'Amr signed the contract
and the statement, some people thought that Misr was taken
by capitulation." 2
After the king of Alyunah had made arrangements for
himself and for the people in his city, he made terms on be-
half of all the Egyptians similar to the terms of Alyunah.
The Egyptians consented, saying, "If those of us who are
protected by fortifications have accepted such terms, and
were content with them, how much more should we be
content who are weak and have no power of resistance."
Kharaj was assessed on the land of Egypt to the amount of
one dinar and three irdabbs of wheat on every jarib, and
two dinars on every adult. The statement was submitted to
'Umar ibn-al-Khattab.
The terms made with 'Amr. 'Amr an-Nakid from Yazid
ibn-abi-Habib : — Al-Mukaukis8 made terms with 'Amr
ibn-al-'Asi, stipulating that 'Amr should let those of the
Greeks go who wanted to leave, and keep those who wanted
to stay, on certain conditions, which he specified, and that
he would assess on the Copts, two dinars per head. Hear-
ing this, the king of the Greeks was enraged and sent his
1 Gottheil, " Dhimmis and Moslems in Egypt ", 0. T. and Semitic
Studies, vol. ii, p. 363.
* Makrizi, vol. ii, pp. 72-74.
1 Ibn-Kurkub al-Yunani — perhaps Cyrus, the viceroy and archbishop
of Alexandria under Heraclius. See Butler, The Arab Conquest of
fyypt, PP- 508, 521; Bysant. Zeitschrift, year 1903, p. 1606; Casanova,
Mohammed et la Fin du Monde, p. 26.
340 THE ORIGINS OP THE ISLAMIC STATE
troops, who, closing the gates of Alexandria, announced
to 'Umar their readiness for war. Al-Mukaukis presented
himself before 'Amr and said, " I have three requests to
make : do not offer to the Greeks the same terms thou hast
offered me, because they have distrusted me; do not vio-
late the terms made with the Copts, for the violation was
not started by them ; and when I die, give orders that I be
buried in a church at Alexandria (which he named).''
' Amr answered, " The last is the easiest x for me/'
Bilhit, al-Khais, Sultais and Alexandria. Certain villages
in Egypt resisted the advance of the Moslems, and 'Amr
carried away some of their inhabitants as prisoners. These
were the following : Bilhit,* al-Khais,* and Sultais.* Their
captives were carried away to al-Madinah. 'Umar ibn-al- 216
Khattab sent them back and made them, together with the
Coptic community, dhimmis. The covenant they had, they
did not violate. The following is the report of the conquest
of Alexandria made by 'Amr to 'Umar : " Allah has given
to us the possession of Alexandria by force and against its
will, without covenant or contract ". According to Yazid
ibn-abi-Habib, however, the city was taken by capitulation.
The tax of Egypt. Abu-Aiyub ar-Rakki from Yazid ibn-
abi-Habib: — The khardj and poll-tax which 'Amr raised
from Egypt amounted to 2,000,000 dindrs; but that raised
by 'Abdallah ibn-Sa'd ibn-Abi-Sarh, 4,000,000. When
'Uthman remarked to 'Amr, saying, " After thee the milch
camels have yielded more milk ", 'Amr replied, " This is
because ye have emaciated their young ".5
In the year 21, 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab wrote to 'Amr ibn-
1 Makrizi, vol. i, p. 263.
* Cf. " Balhib » in Yakut, vol. i, p. 733-
1 Butler, p. 289, and note ; ibn-Dukmafc Kit&b ol-Intisdr li-fVfisitat 7(W
ol-Amsor, vol. v, p. 118 (Bulak, 1893).
4 Cf. Dukmak, vol. v, pp. 118-119. • Makrizi, vol. i, p. 159-
THE CONQUEST OF EGYPT AND AL-MAGHRIB 34I
al-'Asi informing him of the straits in which the inhabi-
tants of al-Madinah were, and ordering him to transport
by sea to al-Madinah all the food he had collected as kharaj.
Accordingly, the food with the oil was carried there; and
when it reached al-Jar,1 it was received by Sa'd al-Jar.a
Later it was kept in a special house at al-Madinah and dis-
tributed among the Moslems by measure. At the time of
the first insurrection, the supply was cut off. In the days of
Mu'awiyah and Yazid, it was again carried to al-Madi-
nah. Then it was cut off until the time of 'Abd-al-Malik
ibn-Marwan, after which it was carried until the caliphate
of abu-Ja'far, or a little previous to that.
Bakr ibn-al-Haitham from Yazid ibn-abi-Habib : — After
the first peace was made, the tax-payers in Egypt made new
terms in the caliphate of 'Umar, stipulating that instead of
the wheat, oil, honey and vinegar they offered, they would
pay two dinars in addition to the other two dinars. Each
one thus was bound to pay four dinars ; and they consented
to that and preferred it.
€Ain Shams, cd-Faiyum and other places reduced. Abu-
Aiyub ar-Rakki from al-Jaishani : — The latter said, " I
heard it stated by a number of those who witnessed the con-
quest of Egypt that when 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi reduced al-
Fustat, he despatched to 'Ain Shams8 'Abdallah ibn-Hu-
dhafah as-Sahmi, who took possession of its land and made 217
terms with the inhabitants of its villages similar to those
of al-Fustat. Likewise 'Amr despatched Kharijah ibn-
Hudhafah al-'Adawi to al-Faiyum,4 al-Ushmunain, Ikh-
1 Hamdani, Sifat Jazirat al-'Arab, p. 47, line 17 (cd. Muller).
2 Sa'd al-Jari mentioned in Dhahabi, al-Mushtabih, p. 81 ; cf. ibn-Sa'd,
vol. iii1, p. 240 ; Yakut, vol. ii. p. 6.
1 Heliopolis ; confused by some historians with Bab Alyunah (Baby-
lon) ; Butler, p. 212, note.
4 Makrizi, vol. i, pp. 402-403.
342 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
mim, al-Basharudat x and the villages of upper Egypt,
which he reduced on the same terms. 'Amr also sent
'Umair ibn-Wahb al-Jumahi to Tinnis, Dimyat, Tunah,
Damirah, Shata, Dikahlah,2 Bana and Busir, which he re-
duced on the same terms. 'Amr also sent 'Ukbah ibn-
'Amir al-Juhani (others say 'Arar's freedman, Wardan
after whom Suk [market] Wardan in Egypt is named)
to the rest of the villages in the lower part of the country;
and he did the same. Thus did 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi effect the
conquest of all Egypt and make its land khardjA&nd"
The Copts have no covenant. Al-Kasim ibn-Sallam
from Aiyub ibn-abi-l-'Aliyah's father: — The latter said,
44 1 heard 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi say from the pulpit, ' I have
occupied this position and am bound to none of the Egyp-
tian Copts by covenant or contract. If I want, I can kill;
if I want, I can take one-fifth of the possessions; if I want,
I can sell captives. The people of Antabulus are excluded
because they have a covenant which must be kept \"
Al-Maghrib and Egypt taken by force. Al-Kasim ibn-
Sallam from Musa ibn-'Ali ibn-Rabah al-Lakhmi's father:
— All al-Maghrib was taken by force.
Abu-'Ubaid from as-Salt ibn-abi-'Asim, the secretary of
Haiyan ibn-Shuraih : — The latter said that he read the letter
of 'Umar ibn-' Abd-al-* Aziz to Haiyan, his 'amil over Egypt,
stating that Egypt was taken by force, with no covenant or
contract.
Poll-tax of the Copts not to be increased. Abu-'Ubaid
from 'Ubaidallah ibn-abi-Ja'far : — Mu'awiyah wrote to
Wardan, a freedman of 'Amr, ordering him to increase the
poll-tax of every Copt by one kirat, but Wardan wrote back,
" How can I increase it while it is stated in their covenant
that their tax should not be increased ?"
1 Cf. Bakri, vol. i, p. 166. * Yakut, vol. ii, p. 5&.
THE CONQUEST OF EGYPT AND AL-MAGHRIB 343
Egyptians overtaxed. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from 'Abd-
al-Hamid ibn-Ja'far's father: — The latter heard 'Urwah
ibn-az-Zubair say, " I spent seven years in Egypt and was
married in it. I found its people exhausted, being burdened
with more than they could bear. The country was con-
quered by 'Amr through capitulation, covenant and some- 218
thing assessed on the inhabitants."
The statement of 'Amr. Bakr ibn-al-Haitham from
'Ukbah ibn-'Amir al-Juhani : — The Egyptians had a cove-
nant and a contract. 'Amr gave them a statement to the
effect that they were secure with respect to their posses-
sions, lives and children, and that none of them would be
sold as slaves. He imposed on them a khardj not to be in-
creased, and promised to expel all fear of attack by an en-
emy. 'Ukbah added, " And I was a witness thereunto ".
The division of the land. Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from
Sufyan ibn-Wahb al-Khaulani : — The latter said, " At the
conquest of Misr by us, which was effected without cove-
nant, az-Zubair ibn-al-'Auwam rose and said, * 'Amr, divide
it between us !' 'Amr replied, 'By Allah, I will not divide it
before I consult 'Umar.' He wrote to 'Umar, and the latter
wrote back, 'Leave it as it is, so that the descendants of the
descendants may profit by it.' "
Its khardj. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from Usamah ibn-Zaid
ibn-Aslam's grandfather : — In the year 20, 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi,
accompanied by az-Zubair, subdued Egypt. When Egypt
was conquered, the people made terms, agreeing to pay
something he imposed on them, which was two dinars on
every man, excluding women and boys. The khardj of
Egypt during his governorship amounted to 2,000,000
dinars ; but later it reached 4,000,000.
Two dinars on each Copt. Abu-'Ubaid from Yazid ibn-
abi-H&bib : — Al-Mukaukis, the chief of Egypt, made terms
with 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi, stipulating that each Copt pays two
344 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
dindrs. Hearing this, Heraclius, the chief of the Greeks,
was enraged with anger and sent the troops to Alexandria
and closed its gates ; but ' Amr reduced the city by force.
The poll-tax of the native village of umm-Ibrahim an-
nulled. Ibn-al-Kattat, i. e., abu-Mas'ud, from ash-Sha'bi:
— 'AH ibn-al-Husain, or al-Husain himself, interceded with
Mu'awiyah regarding the poll-tax of the fellow-villagers in 219
Egypt of the mother of Ibrahim,1 the Prophet's son ; and it
was cancelled. The Prophet himself used to recommend
that the Copts be favorably treated.
The Prophet recommends the Copts. 'Amr from Malik,
and al-Laith from a son of Ka'b ibn-Malik : — The Prophet
said, " If ye conquer Egypt, treat the Copts favorably, be-
cause they have dhimmah and blood-relationship." It is
stated by al-Laith that umm-Isma'il 2 was a Copt.
'Umar confiscates 'Amr's possessions. Abu-1-Hasan al-
Mada'ini from 'Abdallah ibn-al-Mubarak : — 'Umar ibn-al-
Khattab used to record the possessions of his 'dmils at the
time of their appointment ; and whatsoever was later added
was partly or wholly confiscated by him. He once wrote to
'Amr ibn-al-'Asi, " It has become revealed that thou ownest
commodities, slaves, vases and animals which thou didst not
possess when thou wert made governor of Egypt." 'Amr
wrote back, " Our land is a land of agriculture and trade;
we, therefore, get as income more than what is necessary for
our expenses." To this, 'Umar replied, " I have had enough
experience with the wicked 'amils. Thy letter is the letter
of one disturbed because justice has been meted out to him.
Therefore, my suspicion has been aroused against thee, and
I have sent to thee Muhammad ibn-Maslamah with a view to
dividing with thee what thou hast. Reveal to him thy secret,
1 Mariyah, the Copt ; Nawawi, p. 853.
* The reference is to Hagar.
THE CONQUEST OF EGYPT AND AL-MAGHRIB 345
and give out whatever he demands of thee; thereby thou
wouldst be spared his severity. What is concealed has been
revealed.1 " Thus were 'Amr's possessions confiscated by
TJmar.
Al-Mada'ini from 'tsa ibn-Yazid: — When Muhammad
ibn-Maslamah divided with 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi his possessions,
'Amr made this remark, " An age in which the son of Han-
tamah * treats us in this manner is certainly an evil age. Al-
' Asi used to put on silk garments with brocade borders ! "
" Hush," said Muhammad, " had it not been for this age of
ibn-Hantamah which thou hatest, thou wouldst be found
bending in the court-yard of thy house, at the feet of a goat,
whose abundance of milk would please thee and scarcity
would displease thee." 8 " I beg thee by Allah," exclaimed
'Amr, " report not what I have just uttered to 'Umar. A
conversation is always confidential." Muhammad replied,
" So long as 'Umar lives, I shall not mention anything that
took place between us."
Egypt taken by force. 'Amr an-Nakid from 'Abdallah
ibn-Hubairah : — Egypt was taken by force.
'Amr from ibn-An'am's grandfather (who witnessed the 220
conquest of Egypt) : — Egypt was taken by force without
covenant or contract.
1 Freytag, Prov., vol. i, p. 160, number 33.
2*Umar ibn-al-Khaftab's mother; Nawawi, p. 447.
8 Caetani, vol. iv, pp. 618-619.
CHAPTER II
The Conquest of Alexandria
The battle of al-Kiryaun. When 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi con-
quered Misr, he settled in it and wrote to 'Umar ibn-al-
Khattab soliciting his orders to march against Alexandria
[al-Iskandariyah].1 'Umar wrote and ordered him to do
so; so 'Amr marched against it in the year 21, leaving as his
substitute [lieutenant] over Misr Kharijah ibn-Hudhafah
ibn-Ghanim ibn-'Amir ibn-'Abdallah ibn-'Ubaid ibn-'Awij
ibn-'Adi ibn-Ka'b ibn-Lu'ai ibn-Ghalib. In the meantime,
those Greeks and Copts who lived below Alexandria had
gathered and said, " Let us attack him in al-Fustat before
he reaches here and makes an attempt on Alexandria."
'Amr met them at al-Kiryaun 2 and defeated them with a
great slaughter. In their ranks were men from Sakha, Bil-
hit, al-Khais and Sultais, and others who came to their as-
sistance and support.
Alexandria reduced. 'Amr kept his way until he arrived
in Alexandria, whose inhabitants he found ready to resist
him, but the Copts in it preferred peace. Al-Mukaukis
communicated with 'Amr and asked him for peace and a
truce for a time ; but 'Amr refused. Al-Mukaukis then or-
dered that the women stand on the wall with their faces
turned towards the city, and that the men stand armed, with
their faces towards the Moslems, thus hoping to scare them
1 Dukmak, vol. v, p. 121.
2Chaereum, Butler, pp. 288-289; al-Idrisi, Sifat al-Maghrib, as-Sudan,
Misr w-al-Andalus, p. 160.
346
THE CONQUEST OF ALEXANDRIA 347
[Moslems]. 'Amr sent word, saying, " We see what thou
hast done. It was not by mere numbers that we conquered
those we have conquered. We have met your king Her-
aclius, and there befell him what has befallen him." Hear-
ing this, al-Mukaukis said to his followers, " These people
are telling the truth. They have chased our king from his
kingdom as far as Constantinople. It is much more prefer-
able, therefore, that we submit." His followers, however,
spoke harshly to him and insisted on fighting. The Mos-
lems fought fiercely against them and invested them for
three months. At last, 'Amr reduced the city1 by the sword
and plundered all that was in it, sparing its inhabitants of 221
whom none was killed or taken captive. He reduced them
to the position of dhimmis like the people of Alyunah. He
communicated the news of the victory to 'Umar through
Mu'awiyah ibn-Hudaij al-Kindi (later as-Sakuni) and sent
with him the [usual] fifth.
Some state that al-Mukaukis made terms with 'Amr to
the effect that he should pay 13,000 dinars, that those who
prefer to leave Alexandria should leave, and those who pre-
fer to stay should stay, and that two dinars be assessed on
every adult Copt. To this end, 'Amr wrote a statement.
He then left in his place over Alexandria 'Abdall&h ibn-
Hudhafah ibn-Kais ibn-'Adi ibn-Sa'd ibn-Sahm ibn-'Amr
ibn-Husais ibn-Ka'b ibn-Lu'ai at the head of a cavalry
guard of the Moslems, and departed for al-Fustat.f
Manuwxl captures Alexandria. The Greeks wrote to
Constantine, son of Heraclius, who was their king at that
time, telling him how few the Moslems in Alexandria were,
and how humiliating the Greeks' condition was, and how they
had to pay poll-tax. Constantine sent one of his men, called
1 Cf. ibn-Iyas, Tctrikh Misr, vol. I, p. 22.
* Makrizi, vol. i, pp. 263 seq.
348 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Manuwil x [Manuel], with three hundred ships full of fight-
ers. Manuwil entered Alexandria and killed all the guard
that was in it, with the exception of a few who by the use
of subtle means took to flight and escaped. This took place
in the year 25. Hearing the news, 'Amr set out at the head
of 15,000 men and found the Greek fighters doing mischief
in the Egyptian villages next to Alexandria. The Moslems
met them and for one hour were subjected to a shower of
arrows, during which they were covered by their shields.
They then advanced boldly and the battle raged with great
ferocity until the " polytheists " were routed ; and nothing
could divert or stop them before they reached Alexandria.
Here they fortified themselves and set mangonels. 'Amr
made a heavy assault, set the ballistae and destroyed the
walls of the city. He pressed the fight so hard until he en-
tered the city by assault, killed the fighters and carried away
the children as captives. Some of its Greek inhabitants left
to join the Greeks somewhere else ; and Allah's enemy, Ma-
nuwil, was killed. 'Amr and the Moslems destroyed the wall
of Alexandria in pursuance of a vow that 'Amr had made
to that effect, in case he reduced the city.
According to certain reports, this invasion took place in
the year 23 ; and according to others, the insurrection took
place in the years 23 and 25 ; but Allah knows best. 'Amr 222
assessed on the land of Alexandria kharaj ; and on its peo-
ple, poll-tax.
Al-Mukaukis. Some report that al-Mukaukis forsook
the people of Alexandria when they violated the covenant,
but 'Amr reinstated him with his people on the terms of
their first capitulation. Others assert that he died before
this invasion.
Alexandria taken by capitulation. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd
1 Butler, pp. 4^8-475.
THE CONQUEST OF ALEXANDRIA 349
from 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz : — The latter said, " Not a
town in al-Maghrib did we take by capitulation except
three: Alexandria, Kafartis and Sultais. 'Umar used to
say, ' Whosoever of the inhabitants of these places accepts
Islam will be set free together with his possessions '."
How the dwellings were divided. 'Amr an-Nakid from
Yazid ibn-abi-Habib : — 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi conquered Alex-
andria, and some Moslems took up their abode in it as a
cavalry guard. Later, they withdrew, after which they
made an assault and hastened to secure dwellings. Some
of them would come to the houses they once occupied and
find them already held by a fellow Moslem. Regarding this,
'Amr remarked, " I am afraid the dwellings would fall
into ruins if different ones of you should occupy them in
turn." Consequently, when the invasion was made and the
Moslems arrived in al-Kiryaun, he said, " Go with Allah's
blessing. Whosoever of you sticks his lancet into a house,
that house is his and his father's sons'." Thus, the Moslem
would enter a house and stick his lancet into some apart-
ment of it; then another would come and stand his lancet
in the same house. The same house would thereby be in
the possession of two or three persons,1 which they would
occupy until their withdrawal, at which the Greeks would
come and occupy it.
Yazid ibn-abi-Habib used to say, " No money from the
rent of these houses is legal.2 They can neither be sold nor
bequeathed, but they are dwelling-places for the Moslems
during the time they hold their post as guard."
The second conflict. During the second conflict with
Alexandria, when Manuwil, the Greek eunuch, came, the
people closed the gates ; but 'Amr reduced it and destroyed
its wall.
1 Makrizi, vol. i, p. 269: "tribes". f Dufrmak, vol. v, p. iiR
350 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
'Abdallah ibn-Sa'd replaces 'Amr. No sooner had 'Amr
returned to al-Fustat after assigning his freedman, War-
dan, as governor of Alexandria, than he was dismissed. In
the place of 'Amr, 'Uthm&n appointed 'Abdallah ibn-Sa'd
ibn-abi-Sarh ibn-al-Harith of the banu-'Amr ibn-Lu'ai,1
'Uthman's foster-brother. That took place in the year 25.
According to others, 'Abdallah ibn-Sa'd was in charge of 223
the kharaj of Egypt in behalf of 'Uthman. Between 'Ab-
dallah and 'Amr, a verbal dispute arose and 'Abdallah
wrote and accused 'Amr. 'Amr was dismissed by 'Uthman,
who assigned 'Abdallah to both functions, and wrote him
saying that Alexandria was taken once by force and re-
volted two times, and ordering him to station in it a cavalry
guard that would never depart from it, and to assign abun-
dant subsistence allowances to the guard, and change its
personnel once in every six months.2
Ibn-Hurmuz. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from al-W&kidi:—
ibn-Hurmuz al-A'raj al-Kari [the lame " reader "] used to
say, " Your best coast, from the standpoint of guard, is
Alexandria." At last he left al-Madinah and joined the
guard stationed in Alexandria, where he died in the year
117'
The capitation tax. Bakr ibn-al-Haitham from Musa
ibn-'Ali's father: — The capitation tax from Alexandria
was 18,000 dinars; but when Hish&m ibn-'Abd-al-Malik
became caliph, it amounted to 36,000.*
'Abdalldh ibn-Sa'd made governor. 'Amr from Yazid
ibn-abi-Habib : — 'Uthman dismissed 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi from
Egypt and assigned in his place 'Abdallah ibn-Sa'd. But
when the Greeks occupied Alexandria, the Egyptians asked
1 Nawawi, pp. 345-347-
* Makrizi, vol. i, p. 270.
* Makrizi, vol. i, p. 269.
THE CONQUEST OF ALEXANDRIA 351;
'Uthman to keep 'Amr until he was through with the fight
against the Greeks, because he had special knowledge of
warfare and inspired awe in the enemy. 'Uthm&n did so;
and 'Amr defeated the Greeks. 'Uthman then wanted 'Amr
to be in charge of the army, and 'Abdallah in charge of the
khardj ; but 'Amr refused, saying, " My case is that of one
who holds the horns of the cow while the chief milks it."
'Uthman then appointed ibn-Sa'd to the governorship of
Egypt.
The Abyssinians of al-Bima. For seven years after the
conquest of Egypt, the Abyssinians of al-Bima1 kept up
their resistance, and could not be subjugated because of
the water with which they flooded their thickets.
The second conquest of Alexandria. 'Abdallah ibn-Wahb
from Mfisa ibn-'Ali's father : — 'Amr conquered Alexandria
for the second time by capitulation, which conquest took
place in the caliphate of 'Uthman after the death of 'Umar.
1 Tabari, vol. iii, p. 1106.
354 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Barkah. " Ye have to sell your children and wives in order
to pay the poll-tax on you." Commenting on this, al-Laith
said, " If they were slaves, that would not be a legal thing
for them to do."
Bakr ibn-al-Haitham from Yazid ibn-abi-Habib : — 'Umar
ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz wrote regarding the Luwatah women,
" Whoever has a Luwatah woman, let him either be en-
gaged to her through her father, or return her to her peo-
ple." Luwatah l is a village inhabited by Berbers who had
a covenant.
lCf. Khurdadhbih, pp. 90 and 91; ibn-Khaldun, Kitdb al-'Ibar b-
Aiydm al-Arab w-al-'Ajam w-al-Barbar, vol. ii2, p. 128 (Bulik, 1284).
WEST OF IFRIKIYAH 357
riers]. 'Abdallah ibn-Sa'd ibn-abi-
n and occupied 'Akubah. After a
abled to kill, by Allah's help, the
; to flight and was torn to pieces.
ents and scattered them all over
cd away a large booty and drove
cy could. Seeing that, the great
her and offered 'Abdallah ibn-
1 provided he would let them
Their request was granted/'
tn ibn-Ka'b: — 'Abdallah ibn-
* with the patrician of Ifriki-
should pay 2,500,000 dinars.
imad ibn-Sa'd from Musa
-When ' Abdallah ibn-Sa'd
ni Ifrikiyah, he returned to
>ne to the governorship of
1 no meeting-place 2 or cen-
murdered and Muhammad
ibn-Rabi'ah ruled over
yah; but when Mu'&wiyah
-• assigned over Egypt Mu-
vho, in the year 20, sent
bn-Lakit al-Fihri to Ifriki-
• *
eled it out into lots among
\h ■ to a castle in al-Kaira-
and capturing many. It is
lies near a city called Maj ja-
d in the language of Barbar = 1,000
edition of Baladhuri, gloss., pp. 92-93.
)t have u abi n in the name.
CHAPTER V
The Conquest of Ifrikiyah
'JJthm&n reinforces ibn-Sa'd. When 'Abdallah ibn-Sa'd
ibn-abi-Sarh was appointed governor over Egypt and al-
Maghrib, he sent out the Moslems in cavalry detachments,
and they plundered as far as the extremities of Ifrikiyah
[modern Tunis]. 'Uthman ibn-'Affan first hesitated to at-
tack Ifrikiyah ; but after consultation, he made up his mind
to do so, and wrote to 'Abdallah in the year 27 (others say
28, still others 29), ordering him to lead the attack, and re-
inforced him with a large army in which were Ma'bad
ibn-al-' Abbas ibn-'Abd-al-Muttalib, Marwan ibn-al-Hakam
ibn-abi-l-'Asi ibn-Umaiyah and his brother al-Harith ibn-
al-Hakam, 'Abdallah ibn-az-Zubair ibn-al-' Auwam, al-
Miswar ibn-Makhramah ibn-Naufal ibn-Uhaib ibn-'Abd-
Manaf ibn-Zuhrah ibn-KH4b, 'Abd-ar-Rahman ibn-Zaid
ibn-al-Khattab, 'Abdallah ibn-'Umar ibn-al-Khattab, 'Asim
ibn-'Umar, 'Ubaidallah ibn-'Umar, 'Abd-ar-Rahman ibn-
abi-Bakr, 'Abdallah ibn-'Amr ibn-al-' Asi, Busr ibn-Abi-
Artah ibn-'Uwaimir al-'Amiri, and abu-Dhu'aib Khuwailid
ibn-Khalid al-Hudhali, the poet. Abu-Dhu'aib died in this
campaign and ibn-az-Zubair had charge of the burial. In
this campaign, a great host of the Arabs from the environs
of al-Madinah took part.
The magnates of Ifrikiyah make terms with 'Abdallah.
Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from 'Abdallah ibn-az-Zubair: — The
latter said : — " 'Uthman ibn-'Affan sent us on an expedition 227
against Ifrikiyah, whose patrician exercised authority from
356
THE CONQUEST OF IFRIKIYAH 357
Tripoli to Tanjah [Tangiers]. 'Abdall&h ibn-Sa'd ibn-abi-
Sarh marched against him and occupied 'Akubah. After a
few days' fight, I was enabled to kill, by Allah's help, the
patrician. His army took to flight and was torn to pieces.
Ibn-abi-Sarh sent detachments and scattered them all over
the country ; and they carried away a large booty and drove
before them all the cattle they could. Seeing that, the great
men of Ifrikiyah met together and offered 'Abdallah ibn-
Sa'd 300 quintals1 of gold provided he would let them
alone and leave their land. Their request was granted."
Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from ibn-Ka'b: — 'Abdallah ibn-
Sa'd ibn-abi-Sarh made terms with the patrician of Ifriki-
yah, stipulating that the latter should pay 2,500,000 dinars.
'Ukbah ibn-Ndfif. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from Musa
ibn-Damrah-l-M&zini's father: — When 'Abdallah ibn-Sa'd
made terms with the patrician of Ifrikiyah, he returned to
Egypt without appointing anyone to the governorship of
Ifrikiyah, which at that time had no meeting-place 2 or cen-
tral town. When 'Uthm&n was murdered and Muhammad
ibn-abi-Hudhaifah ibn-'Utbah ibn-Rabi'ah ruled over
Egypt, he sent nobody to Ifrikiyah; but when Mu'&wiyah
ibn-abi-Suf yan came to power, he assigned over Egypt Mu-
'awiyah ibn-Hudaij as-Sakuni who, in the year 20, sent
'Ukbah ibn-Nafi' ibn-'Abd-Kais ibn-Lakit al-Fihri to Ifriki-
yah. 'Ukbah invaded it and parceled it out into lots among
the Moslems.
'Ukbah sent Busr ibn-abi-Artah * to a castle in al-Kaira-
• • •
wan, which he reduced, killing and capturing many. It is
now known as Kal'at Busr and lies near a city called Maj ja-
nah, near the silver mine.
1 Ar. frinfar = " 1,200 din&rs, and in the language of Barbar = 1,000
mithkals of gold or silver"; TJA.
2 Ar. kairawan. See De Goeje's edition of Baladhuri, gloss., pp. 92-93-
1 Makrizi, vol. i, p. 272, does not have "abi * in the name.
358 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
I heard it said that Musa ibn-Nusair sent Busr, who was
then 82 years old, to this castle; and the latter reduced it
This Busr was born two years before the Prophet's death, d
Others than al-Wakidi claim that Busr was one of those who
transmitted traditions from the Prophet; but Allah knows
better.
Various governors. It was stated by al-Wakidi that 'Ab-
dallah ibn-Sa'd held the governorship until Muhammad ibn-
abi-Hudhaif ah assumed authority over Egypt, which he had
made to rise in rebellion against 'Uthman. Later on, 'Ali
assigned Kais ibn-Sa'd ibn-'Ubadah-l-Ansari as governor
of Egypt, after which he dismissed him and chose Muham-
mad ibn-abi-Bakr as-Siddik. The latter he also dismissed
• • •
and assigned Malik al-Ashtar, who was taken sick1 at
al-Kulzum [Suez]. 'Ali once more assigned Muhammad
ibn-abi-Bakr, who was later killed by Mu'awiyah ibn-Hu-
daij and burned in a donkey's belly.*
'Amr ibn-al-'Asi ruled in the name of Mu'awiyah ibn-
abi-Sufyan. He died in Egypt on the feast of the breaking
of the fast of Ramadan [al-fitr] in the year 42 (others say
43), and was succeeded by his son 'Abdallah whom Mu-
'4wiyah dismissed. Mu'awiyah assigned ibn-Hudaij, who
spent f our years in Egypt ; at the close of which he made a
razzia and plundered. After that he returned to Egypt and
sent there 'Ukbah ibn-Nafi' al-Fihri. Others say that
'Ukbah was appointed by Mu'awiyah over al-Maghrib ; and
so he invaded Ifrikiyah at the head of 10,000 Moslems and
reduced it. He parceled out its Kairaw&n * in lots among
the Moslems, the site being a thicket covered with tamarisk
and other trees and which nobody could attempt because of
1 Mahasin, vol. i, pp. 116-117.
9 Ibid., vol. i, p. 125 ; Khaldun, vol. ii*, p. 182.
• 'Adhari, vol. i, p. 12.
THE CONQUEST OF IFRIKIYAH 359
the beasts, snakes and deadly scorpions. This ibn-Nafi' was
a righteous man whose prayer was answered. He prayed
to his Lord, who made the scorpions disappear; even the
beasts had to carry their young and run away.
Al-Wakidi says, " I once said to Musa ibn-'Ali, ' Thou
hast seen the buildings in Ifrikiyah that are connected to-
gether and that we still see to-day. Who was it that built
them ? ' And Musa replied, ' The first one was 'Ukbah ibn-
Nafi* al-Fihri who marked out the plans for the buildings,
himself built a home, and the Moslems at the same time
built houses and dwelling-places. He also built the cathe-
dral mosque that is in Ifrikiyah.' "
It was in Ifrikiyah that Ma'bad ibn-al-'Abb&s fell a mar-
tyr in the campaign of ibn-abi-Sarh during the caliphate of
'Uthman. Others say he met natural death during the
war ; but that he fell a martyr is the more authentic report.
According to al-Wakidi and others, Mu'awiyah ibn-abi-
Sufyan dismissed Mu'awiyah ibn-Hudaij 1 and conferred
the governorship of Egypt and al-Maghrib on Maslamah
ibn-Mukhallad al-Ansari,2 who appointed his freedman,
abu-1-Muhajir, governor of al-Maghrib. When Yazid ibn-
Mu'awiyah, however, came to power, he reinstated 'Ukbah
ibn-Nafi* in his position, and the latter invaded as-Sus al- 229
Adna,* which lay behind Tanjah. There he went about
without being molested or fought by anybody. At last he
departed.
Yazid ibn-Mu'awiyah died and his son Mu'awiyah ibn-
Yazid, surnamed abu-Laila, was proclaimed caliph. Mu-
'awiyah called a general public prayer meeting, and resigned
the caliphate. He retired to his home where he died after
1 'Adhari, vol. i, p. 14.
* Suyuti, &usnt vol. ii, 7.
*«. *., the nearer (= Dar'ah) in distinction from al-Aksa — the far-
ther; Ya'kutri, Buld&n, pp. 359-3&>.
360 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
two months. Later came the rule of Marwan ibn-al-Hakam
and the insurrection of ibn-az-Zubair.
Then came 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan to power; and
everything went smoothly with him. He assigned as 'dmil
over Egypt his brother 'Abd-al-'Aziz who put over If rikiyah
Zuhair ibn-Kais al-Balawi.1 Zuhair conquered Tunis and
left for Barkah. Hearing that a band of Greeks had landed
from their ships and were doing mischief, he went against
them with a cavalry detachment. On meeting them, he f ell
a martyr with his companions. His tomb is still there.
His and his companions' tombs are called Kubur ash-Shu-
had£ [the martyrs' tombs].
Then Hassan ibn-an-Nu'man al-Ghassani * became ruler.
He made an incursion against al-Kahinah,s the queen of
the Berbers. He was defeated by her and came and occu-
pied certain castles within the territory of Barkah. These
castles were included within one whose roof was an arched
structure upon which one could cross over. Since then,
these castles were called Kusur Hass&n.4
Hassan made another incursion, killed the queen and
carried into captivity many Berbers whom he sent to *Abd-
al-'Aziz. Regarding these captives, the poet, abu-Mihjan
Nusaib, used to say, " I have seen in 'Abd-al-' Aziz's home
Berber captives who have faces more beautiful than which
I never saw."
According to ibn-al-Kalbi, Hish&m assigned Kulthum
ibn-'Iyad ibn-Wahwah al-Kushairi to the governorship of
If rikiyah, whose people rebelled and put him to death. Ibn-
al-Kalbi also states that If rikiyah was subdued in pre-
1 'Adhari, vol. i, p. 16.
* Ibid., vol. i, pp. 18 seq.
• Fcm. of kahin = soothsayer.
4 'Adhari, vol. if p. 21.
THE CONQUEST OF IFRIKIYAH 361
Islamic times by Ifrikis ibn-Kais ibn-Saifi-1-Himyari and
was named after him. He killed Jurjir l [Gregory] its king
and said regarding the Berbers, "How barbarous they are !"
Hence the name, Berbers.
Al-Kairawdn. According to a tradition communicated
to me by certain inhabitants of Ifrikiyah on the authority
of their sheikhs, when 'Ukbah ibn-Nafi' al-Fihri wanted to
build al-Kairawan,2 he began to think regarding the site of
the mosque, and he saw in a dream as if a man called to
prayer at a certain spot where he later erected the minaret
When he awoke, he started to erect the boundary marks 230
where he had seen the man stand, after which he built the
mosque.
Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from al-W&kidi : — Muhammad ibn-
• • •
al-Ash'ath al-Khuza'fi ruled over Ifrikiyah in the name of
abu-1-' Abbas " the Commander of the Believers ", and re-
paired the city of al-Kairawan with its mosque. He was
later dismissed by al-Mansur, who assigned 'Umar ibn-
Haf s Hizarmard s in his place.
1 Cf. 'Adhari, vol. i, pp. 5-6.
3 Istakhri, pp. 39-40.
* 'Adhari, vol. i, p. 64. " 'Amr ibn-IJafs ibn-Kabisah."
360 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
two months. Later came the rule of Marwan ibn-al-Hakaxn
and the insurrection of ibn-az-Zubair.
Then came 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan to power; and
everything went smoothly with him. He assigned as 'dmil
over Egypt his brother 'Abd-al-'Aziz who put over Ifrikiyah
Zuhair ibn-Kais al-Balawi.1 Zuhair conquered Tunis and
left for Barkah. Hearing that a band of Greeks had landed
from their ships and were doing mischief, he went against
them with a cavalry detachment. On meeting them, he fdl
a martyr with his companions. His tomb is still there.
His and his companions' tombs are called Kubur ash-Shu-
had£ [the martyrs' tombs].
Then Hassan ibn-an-Nu'man al-Ghassani * became ruler.
He made an incursion against al-K&hinah,* the queen of
the Berbers. He was defeated by her and came and occu-
pied certain castles within the territory of Barkah. These
castles were included within one whose roof was an arched
structure upon which one could cross over. Since then,
these castles were called Kusur Hassin.4
Hassan made another incursion, killed the queen and
carried into captivity many Berbers whom he sent to 'Abd-
al-'Aziz. Regarding these captives, the poet, abu-Mihjan
Nusaib, used to say, " I have seen in 'Abd-al-' Aziz's home
Berber captives who have faces more beautiful than which
I never saw."
According to ibn-al-Kalbi, Hisham assigned Kulthum
ibn-'Iyad ibn-Wahwah al-Kushairi to the governorship of
If rikiyah, whose people rebelled and put him to death. Ibn-
al-Kalbi also states that Ifrikiyah was subdued in pre-
1 'Adhari, vol. i, p. 16.
* Ibid., vol. i, pp. 18 seq.
• Fcm. of kahin = soothsayer.
4 'Adhari, vol. i, p. 21.
THE CONQUEST OF IFRIKIYAH 361
Islamic times by Ifrikis ibn-Kais ibn-Saifi-1-Himyari and
was named after him. He killed Jurjir * [Gregory] its king
and said regarding the Berbers, "How barbarous they are !"
Hence the name, Berbers.
Al-Kairawdn. According to a tradition communicated
to me by certain inhabitants of Ifrikiyah on the authority
of their sheikhs, when 'Ukbah ibn-Nafi' al-Fihri wanted to
build al-Kairawan,2 he began to think regarding the site of
the mosque, and he saw in a dream as if a man called to
prayer at a certain spot where he later erected the minaret.
When he awoke, he started to erect the boundary marks 230
where he had seen the man stand, after which he built the
mosque.
Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from al-Wakidi : — Muhammad ibn-
al-Ash'ath al-Khuza'fi ruled over Ifrikiyah in the name of
abu-1-' Abbas " the Commander of the Believers ", and re-
paired the city of al-Kairawan with its mosque. He was
later dismissed by al-Mansur, who assigned 'Umar ibn-
Hafs Hizarmard * in his place.
1 Cf. 'Adhari, vol. i, pp. 5-6.
2 Istakhri, pp. 39-40.
» 'Adhari, vol. i, p. 64. " 'Amr ibn-flafs ibn-Kabisah.M
360 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
two months. Later came the rale of Marwan ibn-al-Hakam
and the insurrection of ibn-az-Zubair.
Then came 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan to power; and
everything went smoothly with him. He assigned as 'dmU
over Egypt his brother 'Abd-al-'Aziz who put over If rikiyah
Zuhair ibn-Kais al-Balawi.1 Zuhair conquered Tunis and
left for Barkah. Hearing that a band of Greeks had landed
from their ships and were doing mischief, he went against
them with a cavalry detachment. On meeting them, he fell
a martyr with his companions. His tomb is still there.
His and his companions' tombs are called Kubur ash-Shu-
had£ [the martyrs' tombs].
Then Hassan ibn-an-Nu'man al-Ghassani * became ruler.
He made an incursion against al-Kahinah,s the queen of
the Berbers. He was defeated by her and came and occu-
pied certain castles within the territory of Barkah. These
castles were included within one whose roof was an arched
structure upon which one could cross over. Since then,
these castles were called Kusur Hass&n.4
Hassan made another incursion, killed the queen and
carried into captivity many Berbers whom he sent to *Abd-
al-'Aziz. Regarding these captives, the poet, abu-Mihjan
Nusaib, used to say, " I have seen in 'Abd-al-' Aziz's home
Berber captives who have faces more beautiful than which
I never saw."
According to ibn-al-Kalbi, Hishim assigned Kulthum
ibn-'Iyad ibn-Wahwah al-Kushairi to the governorship of
Ifrikiyah, whose people rebelled and put him to death. Ibn-
al-Kalbi also states that Ifrikiyah was subdued in pre-
1 'Adhari, vol. i, p. 16.
* Ibid., vol. if pp. 18 seq.
• Fcm. of kahin = soothsayer.
4 'Adhari, vol. i, p. 21.
THE CONQUEST OF IFRIKIYAH 361
Islamic times by Ifrikis ibn-Kais ibn-Saifi-1-Himyari and
was named after him. He killed Jurjir * [Gregory] its king
and said regarding the Berbers, "How barbarous they are !"
Hence the name, Berbers.
Al-Kairawan. According to a tradition communicated
to me by certain inhabitants of Ifrikiyah on the authority
of their sheikhs, when 'Ukbah ibn-Nafi' al-Fihri wanted to
build al-Kairawan,2 he began to think regarding the site of
the mosque, and he saw in a dream as if a man called to
prayer at a certain spot where he later erected the minaret.
When he awoke, he started to erect the boundary marks 230
where he had seen the man stand, after which he built the
mosque.
Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from al-Wakidi : — Muhammad ibn-
al-Ash'ath al-Khuza'fi ruled over Ifrikiyah in the name of
abu-1-' Abbas " the Commander of the Believers ", and re-
paired the city of al-Kairawan with its mosque. He was
later dismissed by al-Mansur, who assigned 'Umar ibn-
Haf s Hizarmard * in his place.
1 Cf. 'Adhari, vol. i, pp. 5-6.
2 Istakhri, pp. 39-40.
* 'Adhari, vol. i, p. 64. " 'Amr ibn-IJafs ibn-Kabisah."
360 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
two months. Later came the rule of Marwan ibn-al-Hakam
and the insurrection of ibn-az-Zubair.
Then came 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan to power; and
everything went smoothly with him. He assigned as 'An*/
over Egypt his brother 'Abd-al-'Aziz who put over If rikiyah
Zuhair ibn-Kais al-Balawi.1 Zuhair conquered Tunis and
left for Barkah. Hearing that a band of Greeks had landed
from their ships and were doing mischief, he went against
them with a cavalry detachment. On meeting them, he fell
a martyr with his companions. His tomb is still there.
His and his companions' tombs are called Kubur ash-Shu-
hadi? [the martyrs' tombs].
Then Hassan ibn-an-Nu'man al-Ghassani 2 became ruler.
He made an incursion against al-Kahinah,3 the queen of
the Berbers. He was defeated by her and came and occu-
pied certain castles within the territory of Barkah. These
castles were included within one whose roof was an arched
structure upon which one could cross over. Since then,
these castles were called Kusur Hassan.4
Hassan made another incursion, killed the queen and
carried into captivity many Berbers whom he sent to 'Abd-
al-'Aziz. Regarding these captives, the poet, abu-Mihjan
Nusaib, used to say, " I have seen in 'Abd-al-' Aziz's home
Berber captives who have faces more beautiful than which
I never saw."
According to ibn-al-Kalbi, Hisham assigned Kulthum
ibn-'Iyad ibn-Wahwah al-Kushairi to the governorship of
If rikiyah, whose people rebelled and put him to death. Ibn-
al-Kalbi also states that If rikiyah was subdued in pre-
1 'Adhari, vol. i, p. 16.
■ Ibid., vol. i, pp. 18 seq.
• Fern, of kahin = soothsayer.
4 'Adhari, vol. i, p. 21.
THE CONQUEST OF IFRIKIYAH 361
Islamic times by Ifrikis ibn-Kais ibn-Saifi-1-Himyari and
was named after him. He killed Jurjir 1 [Gregory] its king
and said regarding the Berbers, "How barbarous they are !"
Hence the name, Berbers.
Al-Kairawan. According to a tradition communicated
to me by certain inhabitants of Ifrikiyah on the authority
of their sheikhs, when 'Ukbah ibn-Nafi' al-Fihri wanted to
build al-Kairawan,2 he began to think regarding the site of
the mosque, and he saw in a dream as if a man called to
prayer at a certain spot where he later erected the minaret
When he awoke, he started to erect the boundary marks 230
where he had seen the man stand, after which he built the
mosque.
Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from al-Wakidi : — Muhammad ibn-
• • •
al-Ash'ath al-Khuza'fi ruled over Ifrikiyah in the name of
abu-1-' Abbas " the Commander of the Believers ", and re-
paired the city of al-Kairawan with its mosque. He was
later dismissed by al-Mansur, who assigned 'Umar ibn-
Hafs Hizarmard * in his place.
1 Cf. 'Adhari, vol. i, pp. 5-6.
3 Istakhri, pp. 39-40.
» 'Adhari, vol. i, p. 64. " 'Amr ibn-IJafs ibn-Kabisah."
f T >»
t
360 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
two months. Later came the rule of Marwan ibn-al-Hakam
and the insurrection of ibn-az-Zubair.
Then came 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan to power; and
everything went smoothly with him. He assigned as 'dtnil
over Egypt his brother 'Abd-al-'Aziz who put over Ifrikiyah
Zuhair ibn-Kais al-Balawi.1 Zuhair conquered Tunis and
left for Barkah. Hearing that a band of Greeks had landed
from their ships and were doing mischief, he went against
them with a cavalry detachment. On meeting them, he fell
a martyr with his companions. His tomb is still there.
His and his companions' tombs are called Kubur ash-Shu-
hadi? [the martyrs' tombs].
Then Hassan ibn-an-Nu'man al-Ghassani 2 became ruler.
He made an incursion against al-K&hinah,* the queen of
the Berbers. He was defeated by her and came and occu-
pied certain castles within the territory of Barkah. These
castles were included within one whose roof was an arched
structure upon which one could cross over. Since then,
these castles were called Kusur Hassan.4
Hassan made another incursion, killed the queen and
carried into captivity many Berbers whom he sent to 'Abd-
al-'Aziz. Regarding these captives, the poet, abu-Mihjan
Nusaib, used to say, " I have seen in 'Abd-al-' Aziz's home
Berber captives who have faces more beautiful than which
I never saw.5
According to ibn-al-Kalbi, Hisham assigned Kulthum
ibn-'Iyad ibn-Wahwah al-Kushairi to the governorship of
Ifrikiyah, whose people rebelled and put him to death. Ibn-
al-Kalbi also states that Ifrikiyah was subdued in pre-
1 'Adhari, vol. i, p. 16.
■ Ibid., vol. i, pp. 18 seq.
• Fern, of kahin = soothsayer.
4 'Adhari, vol. i, p. 21.
THE CONQUEST OF IFRIKIYAH 361
Islamic times by Ifrikis ibn-Kais ibn-Saifi-1-Himyari and
was named after him. He killed Jurjir * [Gregory] its king
and said regarding the Berbers, "How barbarous they are!"
Hence the name, Berbers.
Al-Kairawan. According to a tradition communicated
to me by certain inhabitants of Ifrikiyah on the authority
of their sheikhs, when 'Ukbah ibn-Nafi' al-Fihri wanted to
build al-Kairawan,8 he began to think regarding the site of
the mosque, and he saw in a dream as if a man called to
prayer at a certain spot where he later erected the minaret
When he awoke, he started to erect the boundary marks 230
where he had seen the man stand, after which he built the
mosque.
Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from al-Wakidi : — Muhammad ibn-
• • •
al-Ash'ath al-Khuza'fi ruled over Ifrikiyah in the name of
abu-1-1 Abbas " the Commander of the Believers ", and re-
paired the city of al-Kairawan with its mosque. He was
later dismissed by al-Mansur, who assigned 'Umar ibn-
Haf s Hizirmard * in his place.
1 Cf. 'Adhari, vol. i, pp. 5-6.
2 Istakhri, pp. 59-40.
* 'Adhari, vol. i, p. 64. " 'Amr ibn-JJaf s ibn-ICabisah."
CHAPTER I
The Conquest of Andalusia
Tarik crosses the Straits. According to al-Wakidi, the
first to invade Andalusia x was Tank ibn-Ziyad,2 the 'dmil
of Musa ibn-Nusair, and that was in the year 92. Tarik
was met by Ulyin, the commander of the Majaz 8 al-Anda-
lus, whom he promised safety provided he would trans-
port him with his companions to Andalusia in his ships.
When he arrived there, Tarik was resisted by the people, but
he effected the conquest of the land in the year 92.* The
king of Andalusia, it is claimed, belonged to the Ashban
[Spanish] people whose origin was from Isbahan.0 Musa
ibn-Nusair wrote Tarik a severe letter for risking the lives 231
of the Moslems and following his own opinion without con-
sulting Musa as regards the campaign. In the meantime, he
ordered him not to go beyond Cordova [Ar. Kurtubah].6
Musa himself proceeded to Cordova in Andalusia; and
Tarik sought and was reinstated in his favor. Tarik then
reduced the city of Tulaitulah,7 the capital of the kingdom
1 Al-Andalus, Spain. Ya'kubi, Buld&n, pp. 353-355.
"'Adhari, vol. ii, pp. 11 seq.
•"The straits separating Morocco from Andalusia," al-Marakishi,
aUMu'jib fi-TalkhU Akhbar al- Maghrib, p. 6.
* 'Adhari, vol. ii, pp. 5 seq.
5 Ispahan of Persia. The Arabs were misled to this conclusion by
the accidental similarity between the two names. See Mas'udi, vol. ii,
PP. 326.327.
• Idrisi, Sifat al-Maghrib, pp. 208-214.
1 Toledo. Mukaddasi, p. 235 ; Khurdadhbih, p. 89.
365
368 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
When Yazid ibn-al-Walid assumed the caliphate, he did
not send to al-Maghrib any 'amil.
Then came Marwan ibn-Muhammad to power. 'Abd-
ar-Rahman ibn-Habib communicated with him and pro-
fessed homage and sent him presents. Marwan had a sec-
retary, Khalid ibn-Rabi'ah-1-Ifriki, who was a special
friend of 'Abd-al-Hamid ibn-Yahya and kept up a corres-
pondence with him. Marwan confirmed 'Abd-ar- Rahman as
governor of the region, and appointed after him Ilyas ibn-
Habib, and after that, Habib ibn-'Abd-ar-Rahman. After
this, the Ibadites * and the Berbers of the Kharijites had
the upper hand.
Towards the end of abu-1-' Abbas' caliphate, Muhammad
ibn-al-Ash'ath al-Khuza'i came to Ifrikiyah as its ruler at
the head of 70,000 men, according to others, 40,000. His
rule lasted for four years, during which he repaired the city
of al-Kairawan. At last, the troops of the city rose against
him together with others. I heard it reported that the in-
habitants of the town and the troops that were in it rose
against him and he held out against them in his castle for
40 days, during which his followers from Khurasan, and
others who owed him allegiance, came to his help. Conse-
quently, he succeeded in laying hold on those who fought
against him. He then went over the names and put to
death every one whose name was Mu'awiyah, Sufyan,
Marwan or any other name that is borne by anyone of the
banu-Umaiyah, sparing only those who had different names.
He was thereupon dismissed by al-Mansur.
'Umar ibn-Hafs ibn-'Uthman ibn-Kabisah ibn-abi-Suf-
rah-l-'Ataki, known as Hizarmard, was then made governor
by al-Mansur, who had great admiration for him. TJmar
entered Ifrikiyah and launched in it a campaign that carried
1 Ash-Shahrastani, Kitab al-Milal w-an-Nifral, p. 100 (ed. Curcton).
THE CONQUEST OF ANDALUSIA 369
him to the extremity of the land of the Berbers, where he
built a city which he called al-'Abbasiyah. Abu-Ha- 233
tim as-Saddarati-1-Ibadi (one of the inhabitants of Sad-
daratah and a freedman of the Kindah) fought against
Hizarmard; and the latter suffered martyrdom together
with some members of his family. The frontier region
broke out in revolt, and the city he had established was de-
stroyed.
Hizarmard was succeeded by Yazid ibn-Hatim ibn-Ka-
bisah ibn-al-Muhallab,1 who rebelled at the head of 50,000
men and was accompanied to Jerusalem by abu-Ja'far al-
Mansur who spent large sums of money on him. Yazid ad-
vanced until he met abu-Hatim in Tripoli [Ar. Atribulus].
He killed him and made his entrance to Ifrikiyah, where
everything went smoothly with him.
Yazid ibn-Hatim was succeeded by Rauh ibn-Hatim, and
the latter by al-Fadl ibn-Rauh, who was slain by the troops
that rose up against him.
I was informed by Ahmad ibn-Nakid, a freedman of
the banu-1-Aghlab, that al-Aghlab ibn-Salim at-Tamimifa of
Maru ar-Rudh,a was among those who came from Khura-
san with al-Musauwidah.* Al-Aghlab was appointed by
Musa-l-H&di governor of al-Maghrib. When al-Aghlab
came to Kairawan Ifrikiyah, Harish, who was once in
the army of the frontier region of Tunis, gathered a body
of men, with whom he marched against him and besieged
him. Al-Aghlab later made a sortie, and in the battle which
followed was hit by an arrow and fell dead. Neither his
followers nor those of Harish knew of it. At last Harish
1 Kindi, pp. 111-117.
*Ibid.t p. no.
9 Hamadhani, Bulddn, pp. 319-322.
4 The partisans of the Abbasid dynasty, so called because they wore
black clothes.
370 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
was defeated with his army and were pursued by the men
of al-Aghlab for three days, during which many were killed,
including Harish himself, who fell in a place called Suk al-
Ahad. Al-Aghlab after this was called " the martyr "
[ash-Shahid],
Ibrahim ibn-al-Aghlab, one of the leading men of the
Egyptian army, arose one day with twelve men and carried
away from the treasury the exact value of their subsistence
allowances and no more. They ran away to a place called az-
Zab which lay at a distance of more than ten days from al-
Kairawan. The 'dmil of this frontier region, at that time
under ar-Rashid Harun, was Harthamah ibn-A'yan.1 Ib-
rahim ibn-al-Aghlab assumed the commandership of the
troops that were in that region and offered presents to
Harthamah, showing him kindness and telling him in writ-
ing that he did not rebel or disobey, but was rather forced 234
to what he did by urgency and necessity. Harthamah as-
signed him to be governor of the region and intrusted to
him its affairs.
When Harthamah's resignation from the governorship
of this region [Ifrikiyah] was accepted, he was succeeded
by ibn-al-'Akki,2 whose rule was so bad that the people rose
up against him. Ar-Rashid consulted Harthamah regarding
a man whom he could assign to that post and intrust to him
its management, and Harthamah advised him that Ibrahim
be reconciled, won over and appointed over the region. Ac-
cordingly, ar-Rashid wrote to Ibrahim, stating that he
had forgiven him his crime, excused his fault and thought
it wise to assign him to the governorship of al-Maghrib as
an act of favor, expecting to receive from him loyalty and
good counsel. Ibrahim became ruler of the region and
managed its affairs thoroughly.
1 Kindi, p. 136. • 'Adhari, vol. i, p. 80.
PART VII
ISLANDS IN THE SEA
372 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
man of al-Aghlab, who failed to reduce it. It was later in-
vaded by Khalfun al-Barbari (supposed to have been a
freedman of the Rabi'ah) who reduced it in the early part 23
of al-Mutawakkil's caliphate.
Al-Mufarraj ibn-Salldtn. After Khalfun there arose one
called al-Mufarraj ibn-Sallam who conquered and brought
under his control 24 forts. He then forwarded the news of
the situation to the Master of the post x in Egypt, and told
him that he and his followers could conduct no [public]
prayer unless the imam confirms him over his district and
makes him its ruler, so that he may not be included in the
category of usurpers. Al-Mufarraj erected a cathedral
mosque. Finally his men rose up against him and killed
him.
S&ran. He was followed by Suran who sent his messen-
ger to al-Mutawakkil, the " Commander of the Believers,"
asking for a confirmation and a letter of appointment to a
governorship. Al-Mutawakkil, however, died before his
messenger departed with the message to Suran.
Al-Muntasir-Bill4h died after holding the caliphate for
six months. Then came al-Musta'in-Billah Ahmad ibn-Mu-
hammad ibn-al-Mu'tasim who ordered his 'amil over al-
Maghrib, Otamish, a freedman of the " Commander of the
Believers ", to confirm Sur&n ; but no sooner had the mes-
senger started from Surra-man-ra'a, than tTtamish was
slain.1 That region was after that governed by Wasif, a
freedman of the caliph, who confirmed Suran in his position
1 Sahib al-bartd. Ibn-at-Tiftafca, al-Fakhri, p. 129.
•Tabari, vol. iii, pp. 1512, 1513.
PART VII
ISLANDS IN THE SEA
CHAPTER I
»
The Conquest of Certain Islands in the Sea
Sicily. The first to invade Sicily * was Mu'awiyah ibn-
Hudaij al-Kindi J in the days of Mu'awiyah ibn-abi-Suf yan.
It was continually invaded after that. The descendants
of al-Aghlab ibn-Salim al-Ifriki conquered more than 20
cities in it, which are still in the hands of the Moslems. In
the caliphate of al-Mutawakkil, Ahmad ibn-Muhammad ibn-
al-Aghlab reduced in it the Yanah castle and Ghalyanah 8
fortress.
It is stated by al-Wakidi that 'Abdallah ibn-Kais ibn-
Makhlad ad-Dizaki plundered Sicily and carried off idols of
gold and silver studded with pearls, which he sent to Mu'a-
wiyah. Mu'awiyah sent them to al-Basrah to be carried
into India and sold there with a view to getting a higher
price for them.
Rhodes. Mu'awiyah ibn-abi-Sufyan sent expeditions by
sea and by land. He sent to Rhodes4 Junadah ibn-abi- 236
Umaiyah-1-Azdi. Junadah was one of those on whose au-
thority traditions were reported. He had chance to meet
abu-Bakr, 'Umar and Mu'adh ibn-Jabal, and died in the
year 80. Junadah took Rhodes by force. Rhodes was a
thicket in the sea. In pursuance of Mu'&wiyah's order,
Junadah caused Moslems to settle in it. This took place in
the year 52.
* Ar. Silplliyah. Idrisi, " Italy ", in Nuzhat al-Mushtfy fi-Ikhtirfy
ol-Afdk, pp. 57-58 (Rome, 1876).
'Kindi, pp. i7-i9t 27-30.
»C/. Idrisi, "Italy", p. 49; Amari, Bibliothtca Arabo-Sicula, p. 60.
4 Rudis. See Kindi, p. 38.
375
376 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Rhodes is one of the most fertile of all islands, and is
about sixty miles in size. It is rich in olive trees, vineyards,
fruits and fresh water.
Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from al-Wakidi and others : — The
Moslems occupied Rhodes for seven years, living in a fort
made for them. At the death of Mu'&wiyah, Yazid wrote
to Junadah ordering him to destroy the fort and return.
Mu'awiyah used to alternate its occupants, making them
live there in turns. Mujahid ibn-Jabr1 lived in it and
taught the Koran.
Arwad. In the year 54, Junadah ibn-abi-Umaiyah re-
duced Arwad,* and Mu'awiyah made the Moslems settle
in it. Among those who took part in conquering it was Mu-
jahid and Tubai',8 a son of Ka'b al-Ahbar's * wife. It was
here that Mujahid taught Tubai' the Koran. Others say
that he did it in Rhodes. This Arwad is an island lying
near Constantinople [al-Kustantiniyah] .
Crete. Junadah led a razzia against Crete [Ikritish],'
a part of which he conquered at the time of al-Walid. Later,
the island was lost to the Moslems. In the caliphate of ar-
Rashid it was invaded again by Humaid ibn-Ma'yuk al-
Hamdani, who reduced a part of it. In the caliphate of al-
Ma'mun, it was invaded by abu-Hafs 'Umar ibn-'Isa-l-An-
dalusi, known by the name of al-Ikritishi, who first reduced
one fort and occupied it. Then he kept on reducing one
part after another until none of the Greeks were left He
also dismantled their forts.
1 Kindi, p. 39.
* Tabari, vol. ii, p. 163.
* Tabari, vol. ii, p. 163 ; Dhahabi, p. 69.
4 A Jewish rabbi of IJimyar converted to Islam in the time of TJmar.
Muir, Annals, p. 236, note 1.
•Idrisi, "Italy", p. 19; Rustah, p. 85; "H:ritiyahw.
PART VIII
NUBIA
380 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
in case the Moslem would disdainfully say, ' In such a spot \
the Nubian would never miss it. They were fond of
fighting with arrows; but their arrows would scarcely
ever hit on the ground.1 One day, they arrayed themselves
against us and we were desirous to carry the conflict with
the sword ; but they were too quick for us and shot their ar-
rows, putting out our eyes. The eyes that were put out
numbered 150. We at last thought that the best thing to
do with Such a people was to make peace. We could carry
very little booty away from them; and their ability to in-
flict injury was great. 'Amr, however, refused to make
peace with them and went on contending against them until
he was dismissed and was succeeded by 'Abdallah ibn-Sa'd
ibn-abi-Sarh, who concluded peace with them."
According to al-Wakidi, Mu'awiyah ibn-Hudaij al-Kindi
lost his eye in Nubia and thus became one-eyed.
The legality of selling their children as slaves. Abu-
'Ubaid al-Kasim ibn-Sallam from Yazid ibn-abi-Habib :—
The latter said, "Between us and the black tribes [Ar. aso-
wid], no treaty or covenant exists. Only a truce was ar-
ranged between us, according to which we agreed to give
them some wheat and lentils, and they to give us slaves. It
is all right to buy their slaves from them or from others."
Abu-'Ubaid from al-Laith ibn-Sa'd: — The latter said,
" The terms we made with the Nubians stipulated only that
we neither fight against them nor they against us, that they
give slaves and we give them their value in terms of food.
If they desire, therefore, to sell their wives or children,
there is no reason why they should not be bought."
In a report of abu-1-Bukhturi and others, it is stated that
'Abdallah ibn-Sa'd ibn-abi-Sarh made terms with the Nu-
bians to the effect that they give four hundred slaves per
1 1. e. they scarcely ever missed their aim.
TERMS MADE WITH NUBIA 381
year, whom they shall bring forth and for whom they shall
receive food in exchange.
The caliph al-Mahdi ordered that Nubia be held respon-
sible every year for 360 slaves and one giraffe, and that
they be given wheat, vinegar, wine, clothes and mattresses
or the value thereof.
The Nubians recently claimed that the tribute * is not
due on them every year, and that it was demanded from
them in the caliphate of al-Mahdi, at which time they told
the caliph that the tribute was a part of what they took as
slaves from their enemies and therefore they had, if they
could not get enough slaves, to use their own children and
offer them. Al-Mahdi ordered that they be tolerated, and
that the tribute of one year be considered as if for three.
No confirmation, however, could be found in the registers
of al-Hadrah ; 2 but it was found in the register in Egypt.
Al-Kummi in al-Bujah. Al-Mutawakkil ordered one,
Muhammad ibn-'Abdallah, known as al-Kummi, to be
sent and put in charge of al-Ma'din s ip Egypt. He also
put him in charge of al-Kulzum [Suez], the road of
al-Hijaz, and the furnishing of guides to the Egyptians
when on holy pilgrimage. Arriving in al-Ma'din, he con-
veyed provisions in ships from al-Kulzum to the land of al-
Bujah. He then proceeded to a sea-coast, called 'Aidh&b,4
where the ships met him. With these provisions, he and his
followers were strengthened and fed until they came to the
castle of the king of al-Bujah. Al-Kummi attacked him in
1 Ar. bak(, Quatremere, Mimoires Giographiques et Historiques stir
FBgypte, vol. ii, pp. 42, S3-
2 Perhaps al-Khadra\ See Idrisi, Sifat al-Maghrib, p. 84; Hama-
dhani, Buldan, pp. 79-80.
•The mine land. Makrizi, vol. i, pp. 313, 318; Mas'udi, Tanbth, p.
330.
4 Idrisi, Sifat al-Maghrib, p. 27.
382 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
small force, and the king of al-Bujah made a sally with
his numerous men on camels fastened with girths. Al-
Kummi brought bells and put them on his horses. As soon
as the camels heard the bell sounds, they ran away with the
al-Bujah men over hills and valleys. The chief of al-Bujah
was killed and was succeeded by his sister's son,1 whose
father was one of the kings of al-Bujah. He sued for a
truce, which al-Mutawakkil granted only on condition that 239
he [the chief] should tread on his [al-Mutawakkil's] carpet
Accordingly, he came to Surra-man-ra'a and made terms
in the year 241, agreeing to pay tribute in money and slaves.
He was then sent back with al-Kummi. Thus, the people
of al-Bujah are in a state of truce in which they pay tax 24°
and do not prevent the Moslems from working in the gold
mine, which terms are mentioned in the conditions im-
posed upon their chief.
1 Makrizi, vol. i, p. 317: "his brother's son"; cf. Quatremere, op.
cit., vol. ii, p. 136.
CHAPTER II
The Karatis x
The Greeks used to get the kardtis from Egypt,2 and the
Arabs used to get the dinars from the Greeks. 'Abd-al-
Malik ibn-Marwan was the first to inscribe on the upper
part of these fabrics 8 such phrases as " Declare : Allah is
one ! " and others with the name of Allah. One day, he re-
ceived from the Byzantine king a message, saying, " You
have recently introduced upon your kardtis some inscription
that we hate. If you leave that out, well and good ; otherwise,
you shall see on the dinars the name of your Prophet asso-
ciated with things you hate." This was too much for *Abd-
al-Malik, who hated to abolish a worthy law that he had es-
tablished. He thereupon sent for Khalid ibn-Yazid ibn-
Mu'awiyah and said to him, " O abu-Hashim ! It is a
calamity ! " Khalid replied, " Be free from your fright,
* Commander of the Believers ' ; declare the use of their
dinars illegal ; strike new coinage in place of them, and let
not these infidels be free from what they hate to see on the
fabrics." " Thou hast eased my mind," said 'Abd-al-Ma-
lik, " may Allah give thee ease ! " He then struck the
dindrs.
According to 'Aw&nah ibn-al-Hakam, the Copts used to
1 Rolls of papyrus for writing ; also, cloth of Egyptian fabric used for
carrying vases or clothes. Zaidan, Ta'rikh at-Tomoddun, vol. i, p. 103;
Zeitschrift fur Assyrologie, pp. 187-190, yr. 1908.
2 Al-Kindi, Fadffil Misr, p. 209, lines 9-10 (ed. Oestrup).
8 Ar. tawdmir. Fraenkel, op. cit.t p. 251.
383
384 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
inscribe the word " Christ " at the top part of the kardtis,
and to ascribe divinity to him (may Allah be highly exalted
above that!) ; and they used to put the sign of the cross in
place of " In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the
merciful ". That is why the Byzantine king was disgusted
and his anger was aroused with the change that 'Abd-al-
Malik introduced.
According to al-Mada ini, it was stated by Maslaxnah
ibn-Muharib that Khalid ibn-Yazid advised 'Abd-al-Malik
to declare the use of the Greek dinars illegal, to prohibit
their circulation and to stop the sending of the kardtis to
the Byzantine empire. Accordingly, no kardtis were carried
there for some time.
PART IX
AURAK AND PERSIA
CHAPTER I
The Conquest of as-Sawad 241
the caliphate of abu-bakr as-siddlk
Al-Muthanna invades as-Sawad. Al-Muthanna ibn-Ha-
rithah ibn-Salamah ibn-Dam^am ash-Shaibani used to lead
incursions with some of his men against as-Sawad.1 Hav-
ing heard of it, abu-Bakr made inquiries regarding him and
learned from Kais ibn-'Asim ibn-Sin&n al-Minkari that that
• • •
was not a man with no reputation, or of unknown origin,
or of no support ; but it was al-Muthanna ibn-Harithah ash-
Shaibani. Later, al-Muthanna presented himself before
abu-Bakr and said to him, " Caliph of the Prophet of Allah,
make me your lieutenant over those of my people who have
accepted Islam, that I may fight against those foreigners,
the Persians." Abu-Bakr wrote him a covenant to that ef-
fect. Al-Muthanna proceeded till he came to Khaffan ; and
inviting his people to Islam, they accepted it.
Khalid in al-Ubullah. Abu-Bakr then wrote to Khalid
ibn-al-Walid al-Makhzumi, ordering him to go against al-
'Irak. Others say that he sent him from al-Madinah. In
the meantime, abu-Bakr wrote to al-Muthanna ibn-Ha-
rithah ordering him to receive Khalid and obey his word.
Previous to this, Madh'ur ibn-'Adi-l-'Ijli had written to
abu-Bakr presenting his case and the case of his people,
and asking to be put in charge of the campaign against the
Persians. Now, abu-Bakr wrote and ordered him to join
Khalid, stop with him when he stopped and move with him
^Irafc, the region west of the Tigris. Rustah, p. 104.
387
388 ?HE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
when he moved. On the arrival of Khalid in an-Nibaj,1
he was met by al-Muthanna ibn-Harithah. Thence Khalid
proceeded to al-Basrah in which there was at this time
Suwaid ibn-Kutbah adh-Dhuhli (others than abu-Mikhnaf
say that there was in it Kutbah ibn-Katadah adh-Dhuhli)
of the tribe of Bakr ibn-Wa'il, accompanied by a band of
followers. Suwaid had designs regarding al-Basrah simi-
lar to those of al-Muthanna regarding al-Kufah, which at
that time was not called al-Kufah but al-Hirah. Suwaid
said to Khalid, " The inhabitants of al-Ubullah had assem-
bled against me but failed to make the attack simply because
of thy presence, as I believe." " If that is so," answered
Khalid " the advisable thing for me would be to leave al-
Basrah in the day time and return in the night, at which
time my companions would enter thy camp and we will
fight together." Accordingly, Khalid left in the direction yt
of al-Hirah and when darkness fell, he turned back until he
got to the camp of Suwaid, which he entered with his men.
In the morning, the inhabitants of al-Ubullah, hearing that
Khalid had left al-Basrah, advanced towards Suwaid
Seeing the great number of men in his army, they were con-
founded and turned back. Thereupon, Khalid shouted, "On
them I I see in them the looks of a people whose hearts
Allah has filled with terror!" Then the Moslems charged
them, put them to flight, and by Allah's help, killed a great
number and caused others to drown in Dijlat al-Basrah.1
Thence Khalid passed through al-Khuraibah,s reduced it
and carried its inhabitants away into captivity. He left over
it in his place — as it is reported by al-Kalbi — Shuraih ibn-
1 Khurdadhbih, pp. 146, 147.
* or Dijlat al-'Aura = the united course of the Tigris and the Eu-
phrates before they empty into the Persian Gulf. Yafcut, vol. iiif p. 74S-
•Hamadhani, Bulddn, p. 189.
THE CONQUEST OF ASS AW AD 389
'Amir ibn-Kain x of the banu-Sa'd ibn-Bakr ibn-Hawazin.
The city was a fortified frontier town for the Persians.
Nahr al-Mar'ah. It is also reported that Khalid came to
the river known as al-Mar'ah 2 river, with whose people he
made terms. He then fought against a body of men as-
sembled at al-Madhar.8
Khalid proceeds to al-Hirah. Khalid then proceeded to
al-Hirah,4 and left Suwaid ibn-Kutbah to rule over his dis-
trict, saying, " We have crushed the Persians in thy dis-
trict in a way that will humiliate them before thee."
Others report that when Khalid was in the district of al-
Yamamah, he wrote to abu-Bakr for reinforcements; and
abu-Bakr sent him Jarir ibn-'Abdallah al-Bajali. Jarir
met Khalid as the latter was on his way out of al-Yamamah,
joined him and attacked the al-Madhar's chief by Khalid's
orders. Allah knows if that is so.
Al-Wakidi states, " Our friends in al-Hijaz maintain
that Khalid left foral-'Irak, passing by Faid5 and ath-
Tha'labiyah,6 after which he came to al-Hirah.
Zandaward, Durna and other places reduced by Khalid.
Khalid ibn-al-Walid passed through Zandaward in Kaskar
and reduced it; he also reduced Durna and its territory,
which capitulated after one hour's shooting by the people
of Zandaward on the Moslems.
He then proceeded to Hurmuzjarad, to the inhabitants
of which he made a promise of security. The city itself
was taken. Khalid then came to Ullais. Jaban,7 the chief
1 Tabari, vol. i, p. 2382.
* 1. e.t the woman's river ; Tabari, vol. i, p. 2026.
'Yakut, vol. iv, p. 468; Hamadhani, p. 211.
4 IJaukal, p. 163.
* A town in central Najd. Mukaddasi, p. 254.
* On the west bank of the Euphrates. Kuhrdadhbih, p. 127.
7 Tabari, vol. i, p. 2018.
390 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
of the Persians, set out against him and Kh&lid sent ahead
al-Muthanna ibn-Harithah ash-Shaibani who met Jaban at
Nahr ad-Damm [sanguine canal]. Khalid made terms
with the inhabitants of Ullais, stipulating that they act as
spies, guides and helpers to the Moslems against the Per-
sians.
Khdlid in al-Hirah. Khalid then proceeded to Mujtama'
al-Anhar1 [confluence of canals], where he was met by
Azadhbih, the holder of the frontier fortifications of Kisra
that lay between the Persian and the Arab territories. The 243
Moslems fought against him and defeated him. Then
Khalid came and stopped at Khaffan. Others say he pro-
ceeded directly to al-Hirah, where he was met by *Abd-al-
Masih ibn-'Amr ibn-Kais ibn-Haiyan ibn-Bukailah2 (Bukai-
lah's proper name being al-H&rith) of the Azd, Hani' ibn-
Kabisah ibn-Mas'ud ash-Shaibani and Iyas ibn-Kabisah at-
Ta'i (others say Farwah ibn-Iy&s), Iyas being the lami\ of
Kisra Abarwiz over al-Hirah after an-Nu'man ibn-al-
Mundhir. These men made terms with Khalid, stipulating
that they pay 100,000 dirhams per year, others say 80,000
per year, that they act as spies for the Moslems against the
Persians, and that Khalid would not destroy any of their
churches or citadels.
It was reported by abu-Mikhnaf , on the authority of abu-
1-Muthannah-l-Walid ibn-al-Katami, who is the same as
ash-Sharki ibn-al-Katami-1-Kalbi, that 'Abd-al-Masih, who
was an aged man, appeared before Khalid who asked him.
"Where dost thou come from, old man?" And he re-
plied, " From my father's back." — " What didst thou come
out from?" — "From my mother's womb." — "Woe unto
thee! Where art thou now? " — " In my clothes."—" Woe
1 Wellhausen, Skissen, vol. vi, p. 42; Caetani, vol. ii, p. 937-
•Dttraid, p. 285; Tabari, vol. i, p. 2019; Mas'udi, vol. i, p. 217.
THE CONQUEST OF AS-SAWAD 391
to thee ! Where dost thou stand now ?" — "On the ground."
— " Dost thou have reason [Ar. ta'kul] ?" — " Yes, I can
bind [a'kul] and tie up [a camel]." * — " Woe to thee! I
am speaking to thee like a man I" — " And I am answering
thee like a man." — "Art thou for peace or for war?" —
" For peace."—" What are these forts then ?"— " We built
them for the rogue until the meek comes." a The two then
discussed the question of peace and it was agreed that 100
000 [dirhatns] be offered the Moslems every year. The
money taken from these people was the first sum carried to
al-Madinah from al-'Irak. It was also stipulated that they
seek no evil for the Moslems and that they act as spies
against the Persians. All that took place in the year 12.
Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from Yahya ibn-Adam: — The
latter said : " I heard it said that the people of al-Hirah were
6,000 men, on each one of whom 14 dirhatns, each having
the weight of 5 klrats, were assessed, making 84,000 dir-
hatns in all, of 5 kirats each, or 60,000 of 7 each. To that
end, he [Khalid] wrote them a statement which I myself
have read." 244
It is reported that Yazid ibn-Nubaishah-l-'Amiri said,
" We came to al-'Irak with KMlid and went as far as the
frontier fort of al-'Udhaib. We then came to al-Hirah
whose people had fortified themselves in al-Kasr al-Abya<J
[white citadel], Kasr ibn-Bukailah and Kasr al-'Adasiyin.
We went around on horseback in the open spaces among
their buildings, after which they made terms with us." (Ac-
cording to ibn-al-Kalbi al-'Adasiyin were a branch of the
Kalb, and were named after their mother who was also of
the Kalb tribe.)
1 Pun 00 words. Caetani, vol. iv, p. 657 takes it to mean, " I am
rich enough to pay the blood-wit [*ahl\ and to retaliate by killing
[kawad] ".
*C/. Mas'udi, vol. t, p. 218; Tabari, vol. i, p. 2019; Caetani, vol. iv.
P- 657.
392 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Abu-Mas'ud al-Kufi from ash-Sha'bi: — Khuraim1 ibn-
Aus ibn-Harithah ibn-Lam at-Ta'i said to the Prophet,
" If Allah enables thee to reduce al-Hirah, I shall ask thee
to give me Bukailah's daughter." When Khalid wanted to
make terms with the inhabitants of al-Hirah, Khuraim said
to him, " The Prophet has given me Bukailah's daughter.
She should not therefore be included in thy terms." This
was testified to by Bashir ibn-Sa'd and Muhammad ibn-
Maslamah of the Ansar; and therefore, Khalid did not in-
clude her in the terms, but turned her over to Khuraim.
She was then bought from Khuraim for 1 ,000 dirhams, she
being too old for Khuraim to marry her. Some one re-
marked to Khuraim, " She was sold very cheap. Her peo-
ple would have paid thee many times the price thou hast
charged." And he replied, " I never thought there was a
number above ten hundred."
Another tradition has it that the one who asked the Pro-
phet to give him Bukailah's daughter was one of the
Rabi'ah. The former view, however, is more authentic.
Banikiya taken. Khalid ibn-al-Walid despatched Bashir
ibn-Sa'd abu-an-Nu'man ibn-Bashir of the Ansar to Bani-
kiya.2 Bashir was met by the Persian horsemen headed by
Farrukhbundadh. Bashir' s men were shot with arrows ; but
he led the charge and put the enemy to flight, killing Far-
rukhbundadh. He then returned with a wound which be-
came recrudescent, when he came to 'Ain at-Tamr, and
caused his death. Others say that Kh&lid himself, accom-
panied by Bashir, met Farrukhbundadh.
Khalid then sent Jarir ibn-'Abdall&h al-Bajali to the peo-
ple of Banikiya. Jarir was met by Busbuhra ibn-Saluba,
who refused to fight and proposed to make peace. Jarir
1 Mawardi, p. 333 ; Tabari, vol. i, pp. 2047-2048.
1 Hamadhani, p. 165.
THE CONQUEST OF ASS AW AD 393
made terms with him on 100,000 dirhams and one mantle.1
Others say that ibn-Saluba came to Khalid and, refusing to
fight, made those terms. After the battle of an-Nukhailah 245
and the death of Mihran, Jarir came and received from ibn-
Saluba's people and from the people of al-Hirah the sum
agreed upon, and wrote them a receipt. Others deny that
Jarir ibn-'Abdallah ever came to al-'Irak except in the
caliphate of 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab. Abu-Mikhnaf and al-
Wakidi, however, repeat that he went there twice.
Khalid wrote a statement to Busbuhra ibn-Saluba and
sent the mantle to abu-Bakr together with the money from
al-Hirah and the thousand dirhams. Abu-Bakr offered the
mantle as a present to al-Husain ibn-'Ali.
Abu-Nasr at-Tammar from ' Abdallah ibn-Mughaffal 2 al-
Muzani: — No part of al-'Irak made covenant [with the
Moslems] except al-Hirah, Ullais and Banikiya.
Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from ibn-Mughaffal : — No land
below al-Jabal 8 is fit for sale except the land of the banu-
Saluba and the land of al-Hirah.
Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from al-Aswad ibn-Kais's
father : — The latter said, " We arrived in al-Hirah and
made terms on so much money and a camel's saddle." In
answer to my question, " What did ye do with the saddle?"
he replied, " One of us had no saddle and we gave it to
him."
Abu-'Ubaid from Humaid ibn-Hilal : — When Khalid ar-
rived in al-Hirah, its inhabitants made terms without of-
fering any resistance. The following verse was written by
Dirar ibn-al-Azwar al-Asadi :
1 Ar. tailasdn = Persian apparel of dark wool. Dozy, V elements, pp.
278-280.
' Mughaffal and not Mughaffil as Baladhuri has it. See Dhahabi, p.
477.
8 Al-Jabal or al-Jibal = Media. Hamadhani, pp. 209 seq.
394 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
" I had insomnia in Banikiya and whosoever receives
what I received there— a wound, would certainly have insomnia.""
Al-W&kidi states, " Our companions agree that this Dirar
was slain in al-Yamamah."
Al-Falalij and Tustar. From Banikiya, Khalid came to
al-Falalij,1 in which was massed a host of Greeks. They
were soon dispersed, and Khalid, meeting no resistance, re- 246
turned to al-Hirah. Hearing that Jaban was at the head of
a great army in Tustar,2 Khalid sent against him al-Mu-
thanna ibn-Harithah ash-Shaibani and Hanzalah ibn-ar-
• • •
Rabi' 8 ibn-Rabah al-Usaidi of the banu-Tamim (he is the
one called Hanzalah-1-Katib[the scribe]). No sooner had
these two come to the place where Jaban was, than he fled.
Suk Baghdad and al-Anbar. Khalid proceeded to al-
Anbar * whose people betook themselves to their fortifica-
tions. Here some one came to Khalid and pointed out to
him Suk [market] Baghdadh,6 which later [after Baghdadh
was founded] was called as-Suk al-'Atik [the old market]
and which lay near Karn as-Sar£t.8 Khalid sent al-Mu-
thanna who made a raid on this market, and the Moslems
filled their hands with gold and silver and commodities light
to carry. They spent the night at as-Sailahin, and then
came to al-Anbar where Khilid was. The Moslems then
invested the inhabitants of al-Anbar and set fire to places in
its district. Al-Anbar was thus called because the Persian
granaries were in it and the friends and proteges of an-Nu'
1 PL of Fallujah. Yakiit, vol. iii, p. 908.
9 tJaukal, p. 172.
•"Rabi'ah" in Duraid, p. 127; and "Rabi'ah ibn-SaifiM in Kutaibah,
Ma'arif, p. 153.
4 Istakhri, p. yy.
5 Le Strange, Baghd&d during the Abbasid Caliphate, p. 12.
6 As-Sarat Point, where as- Sara t canal disembogued to the Tigris.
See Ya'kubi, Bulddn, p. 235.
THE CONQUEST OF ASS AW AD 395
man used to get their subsistence allowances from it See-
ing what had befallen them, the inhabitants of al-Anbar
made terms which satisfied Khalid, and so he left them in
their homes.
Others assert that Khalid sent al-Muthanna before him
to Baghdadh and then followed him and directed the raid
against it, after which he returned to al-Anbar. This, how-
ever, is not authentic.
Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from ash-Sha'bi: — The people
of al-Anbar have a covenant [with the Moslems].
A tradition communicated to me by certain sheikhs from
al-Anbar states that terms were concluded with the people
of al-Anbar in the caliphate of 'Umar in which it was stipu-
lated that they pay for their canton [tassttj] 400,000 dir-
hams and 1,000 cloaks fabricated in Katawan, per year. The
terms were made by Jarir ibn-'Abdallah al-Bajali. Others
say that the sum was 80,000 ; but Allah knows best.
Jarir reduced Bawazij al-Anbar in which are to-day many
of his f reedmen.
According to a report there came to Khalid ibn-al-Walid
someone who pointed out to him a market above al-Anb&r
in which the Kalb, Bakr ibn-Wa'il and others from the
tribe of Kuda'ah used to meet. Khalid despatched against
this place al-Muthanna ibn-Harithah who made a raid
against it, carried as booty what there was in it, slaughtered
and took captives.
'Ain at-Tamr. Thence KMlid advanced to 'Ain at-
Tamr * and invested its fort in which a great frontier guard
of Persians was stationed. The holders of the fort made a
sally and fought, but after that, they confined themselves to
their fort, where Khalid and the Moslems besieged them 247
until they sued for peace. Khalid refused to give them
1 Yakut, vol. iii, p. 759.
396 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
promise of security and reduced the fort by force, slaugh-
tering and carrying away captives. Here he found certain
persons in a church whom he took captives. Among these
captives was (i) Humran ibn-Aban ibn-Khalid at-Tamri.
Others say his father's name was Abba. This Humran was
the freedman of 'Uthman. He first belonged to al-Musai-
yab ibn-Najabah-1-Fazari from whom 'Uthman bought
him, and then released him. 'Uthman later sent him to al-
Kufah to make inquiry regarding the conduct of his 'dmU
there, on which occasion Humr&n did not tell the truth. So
'Uthman denied him the rights of protection [Ar. jiwar]
and Humran went and settled in al-Basrah. Among other
captives were (2) Sirin, father of Muhammad ibn-Sirin,1
whose brothers were Yahya ibn-Sirin, Anas ibn-Sirin, and
Ma'bad ibn-Sirin, Muhammad being the eldest brother, and
all being the freedmen of Anas ibn-Malik al-Ansari; (3)
abu-'Amrah, a grandfather of 'Abdallah ibn-'Abd-al-A'la,
the poet; (4) Yasar, a grandfather of Muhammad ibn-
Ishak — the author of as-Sirah 2 — and a freedman of Kais
• • •
ibn-Makhramah ibn-al-Muttalib ibn-' Abd-Manaf ; (5)
Murrah abu-'Ubaid, a grandfather of Muhammad ibn-Zaid
ibn-'Ubaid ibn-Murrah (Nafis ibn-Muhammad ibn-Zaid
ibn-'Ubaid ibn-Murrah, the owner of the citadel [kasr]
near al-Harrah [volcanic tract of al-Madinah] was a son
of this Muhammad. His descendants give the name of
their ancestor as 'Ubaid ibn-Murrah ibn-al-Mu'alla-1-An-
sari and later az-Zuraki) ; (6) Nusair, the father of Musa
ibn-Nusair, the governor of al-Maghrib. This Nusair was
a freedman of the banu-Umaiyah, as it is asserted by freed-
men in the frontier towns descended from slaves whom he
1 Bakri, p. 199.
1 The biography of the Prophet from which ibn-Hisham's was
abridged.
THE CONQUEST OF ASS AW AD <jff]
had released. Ibn-al-Kalbi says that abu-Farwah 'Abd ar-
Rahman ibn-al-Aswad and Nusair abu-Musa ibn-Nusair
• • •
were both Arabs of [the clan of] Arashah of [the tribe of]
Bali and that they were taken captives from Jabal al-Jalil
[Mt Galilee] in Syria during the caliphate of abu-Bakr.
Nusair's name was originally Nasr which was later used in
the diminutive form — Nusair. Some one of the banu-
Umaiyah gave him his liberty; and he returned to Syria
where in a village called Kafarmara1 his son Musa was
born. Musa was lame. Al-Kalbi adds that some one said
that the two [Nusair and abu-Farwah] were brothers taken
captives from 'Ain at-Tamr, and that they owed their lib-
erty to the banu-Dabbah.
According to 'Ali ibn-Muhammad al-Mada'ini, it is stated
by someone that abu-Farwah and Nusair were of the cap-
tives of 'Ain at-Tamr. Abu-Farwah was bought by N&'im
al-Asadi who sold him later to 'Uthman who used him for
digging graves. When the people rose up against 'Uthman, 248
abu-Farwah joined them and said to 'Uthman, " Restore
what thou hast wrongfully taken from others ! " To this
'Uthm&n replied, " Thou representest the first thing. I
bought thee out of the sadakah funds that thou mayest dig
the tombs ; but thou hast left that." His son 'AbdallSh ibn-
abi-Farwah was one of the illustrious freedmen. One of
his descendants 2 was ar-Rabi' ibn-Yunus ibn-Muhammad
ibn-abi-Farwah, a companion of al-Mansur. Abu-Farwah
was thus called because of a furred garment [Ar. farwah]
which he had on when he was taken captive.*
According to certain reports, Khalid made terms with the
1 " Kaf armathra " in Mardsid, vol. iif p. 504.
1 Cactani, vol. ii, p. 945.
* Aghdni, vol. iii, p. 127, adds Kaisan, one of the ancestors of abu-1-
'Atahiyah, to the list of captives.
398 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
holders of 'Ain at-Tamr fort and these captives [mentioned
above] were found in a church in a certain canton.1 Some
say that Sirin was one of the inhabitants of Jarjaraya and
that he came there on a visit to a relative of his and was
taken captive together with those in the church.
Al-Musain ibn-al-Aswad from Yahya ibn-Adam from
ash-Sha'bi : — Khalid ibn-al-Walid made terms with the peo-
ple of al-Hirah and 'Ain at-Tamr, and stated them in a
letter to abu-Bakr, which the latter endorsed. Yahya adds,
" I asked al-Hasan ibn-Salih,2 ' Have the people of 'Ain at-
Tamr, like those of al-Hirah, to pay something for their
lands, but nothing for their persons ? ' To this al-Hasan
replied, ' Yes.' "
It is stated by someone that there was at 'Ain at-Tamr
at the head of the an-Namir ibn-Kasit tribe, Hilal ibn-'Ak-
kah ibn-Kais ibn-al-Bishr an-Namiri,8 who gathered an
army and fought against Khalid. He was defeated, killed
and crucified. According to ibn-al-Kalbi, there was at the
head of the an-Namir at that time 'Akkah ibn-Kais ibn-al-
Bishr himself.
The wound of Bashir ibn-Sa'd al-Ansari became recru-
descent and caused his death. He was buried at 'Ain at-
Tamr. By his side was buried 'Umair ibn-Ri'ab ibn-Mu-
hashshim ibn-Sa'id ibn-Sahm ibn-'Amr, who was hit by an
arrow at 'Ain at-Tamr and fell a martyr.
The razzias of an-Nusair ibn-Daisatn. When Kh&lid
ibn-al-Walid was at 'Ain at-Tamr he sent an-Nusair ibn-
Daisam ibn-Thaur to a spring of water by which were set-
tled the banu-Taghlib, whom he surprised by night, killing
and carrying away many captives. One of the prisoners
1 (asstij. Noldeke, ZDMG, 1874, vol xxviii, p. 94, note.
1 One of the intermediate authorities of this tradition.
•Tabari, vol. i, p. 2122: " an-Namari ".
THE CONQUEST OF ASS AW AD 399
asked Khalid to release him, promising to point out to him
a quarter inhabited by the banu-Rabi'ah. Khalid did so
and an-Nusair came to the Rabi'ah quarter, where he fell
upon them in the night-time and carried away booty and
captives. He then proceeded inland towards Takrit Thus
did the Moslems enrich themselves with booty. 249
According to a tradition communicated to me by abu-
Mas'ud al-Kufi, on the authority of Muhammad ibn-Mar-
wan, an-Nusair came to 'Ukbara' and gave promise of se-
curity to its inhabitants, who brought forth food for his
men and their animals. He then passed through al-Bara-
din, whose people hurried to present themselves before the
Moslems. An-Nusair said, " Never mind !" ; which was
enough to guarantee their safety.
Thence an-Nusair advanced to al-Mukharrim which ac-
cording to abu-Mas'ud was not called then Mukharrim,1 but
was so called after being occupied by a certain descendant
of Mukharrim ibn-Hazn ibn-Ziyad ibn-Anas ibn-ad-Daiyan
al-Harithi, as it is mentioned by Hi sham ibn-Muhammad
al-Kalbi.
The Moslems then crossed a bridge lying near Kasr
[castle] Sabur, known to-day by the name of Kasr 'Isa ibn-
'Ali. The bridge was in charge of Khurzad ibn-Mahibun-
d&dh who went out against the Moslems, but was fought
and defeated by them. The Moslems then retreated to
'Ain at-Tamr.
An-Nusair and Hudhaifah. It is stated by al-W&kidi
that after the battle of al-Jisr [bridge] and after making
the Moslems withdraw to Khaff&n, al-Muthanna ibn-Ha-
rithah sent in the caliphate of 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab an-
Nusair and Hudhaifah ibn-Mihsan at the head of a body
of horsemen, who destroyed a band of the banu-Taghlib
*»•
~T:r *^T - ' 1 Ya'kubi, Bulddn, p. 353.
400
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
and crossed over to Takrit from which they carried away
camels and goats.
" One of the things told me by abu-Mas'ud," said 'Attlb
ibn-Ibrahim, " was that an-Nusair and Hudhaifah promised
security to the people of Takrit and wrote a statement
which was carried out by 'Utbah ibn-Farkad as-Sulami
when he reduced at-Tirhan [or Tirahan] and al-Mausil.
He also mentioned the fact that an-Nusair, directed by
Khalid ibn-al-Walid, made a raid against villages in Maskin
and Katrabbul [or Kutrubbul] from which he carried off
large booty."
From 'Ain at-Tamr, Khalid advanced to Syria and said
to al-Muthanna ibn-H&rithah, " Return [to al-Hirah?]—
may Allah have mercy on thee — to thy Sultan, untired and
unfailing.'9 x
The departure of Khalid for Syria took place in Rabi' II, 2J°
according to others, Rabi* I, year 13. It is claimed by
some that Khalid came from 'Ain at-Tamr to Dumah,1
which he reduced, and after that he proceeded to al-Hirah
and thence to Syria. That he departed for Syria from
'Ain at-Tamr, is, however, more reliable.
1 Certain verses describing die battles referred to above are here
omitted from the translation. This was done in a few other cases.
1 Skiszen, vol. iv, p. 47, n. 3. De Goeje, MSmoire, p. 15, takes this to
be Dumah al-IJirah and not al-Jandal. Cf. Muller, Der Islam, vol. i
p. 229, note.
CHAPTER II
The Caliphate of 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab
Abu-'Ubaid chief commander. When 'Umar ibn-al-
Khattab was proclaimed caliph, he directed abu-'Ubaid ibn-
Mas'ud ibn-'Amr ibn-'Umair ibn-'Auf ibn-'Ukdah ibn-Ghi-
yarah ibn-'Auf ibn-Thakif (who is identical with abu-1-
Mukht&r ibn-abi-'Ubaid) to al-'Irak with 1,000 men.
Meanwhile, he wrote to al-Muthanna ibn-Harithah, order-
ing him to receive abu-'Ubaid and obey his word. In the
company of abu-'Ubaid, he sent Salit ibn-Kais ibn-'Amr al-
al-Ansari, saying to him, " Had it not been for the fact that
thou art too hasty, I would have put thee in chief com-
mand. But warfare is a stubborn thing, and only the cau-
tious man is fit for it."
Abur'Ubaid defeats Jab an, al-Jdlinus and other Persian
chiefs. Abu-'Ubaid marched forward and left no Arab
tribe by which he passed without arousing its interest in
the " holy war " and plunder. Thus, he was joined by a
large host. On arriving in al-'Udhaib, he heard that Jaban,
the Persian, was at Tustar with a laige body of men. Abu- 251
'Ubaid met Jaban and put his troops to flight, taking some
of them captive.
Thence abu-'Ubaid proceeded to Duma l in which there
was assembled a body of Persians. These abu-'Ubaid
chased to Kaskar. He then advanced to meet al-Jilinus,*
1 Tabari, vol. i, p. 2169: "Durtha"; cf. Yakut, vol. ii, pp. 565, 569;
Bakri, p. 345-
• " Jilinus ", in Tabari, vol. i, p. 2170.
401
402
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
who was at Barusma [or Mirusma]; but ibn-al-Andarz-
'azz 1 made terms with him, agreeing to pay four dirhams
on every person, provided abu-'Ubaid should keep his way.
Abu-'Ubaid sent al-Muthanna to Zandaward,2 and find-
ing that its inhabitants had violated their covenant, al-Mu-
thanna fought against them, won the victory and carried
away [many] captives. Abu-'Ubaid also sent 'Urwah ibn-
Zaid-al-Khail at-T&'i to az-Zawabi, with whose chief [dih-
kdn] me made terms similar to those made with Barusma.
1 Tabari, vol. i, pp. ooag seq.
1 Yi^ut, vol. ii, pp. 951-95*
CHAPTER III
The Battle of IJojss an-NAjif, or the Battle of al-Jisr
Dhur-l-Hdjib. Hearing that the Arabs were massing their
forces, the Persians sent dhu-1-Hajib [the eye-browed]
Mardansh&h who was nicknamed by Anushirwan " Bah-
man " [potent, endowed with great means] because he au-
gured good from him.1 He was called dhu-1 Hajib because,
in his pride, he tied up his brows, to lift them above his
eyes. His name, it is said, was Rustam.*
The elephant Abu-TJbaid ordered that the bridge [on
the Euphrates] be erected; and it was, the people of B&ni-
kiya helping in the construction. It is said that this bridge
once belonged to the people of al-Hirah on which they
crossed over to their farms. Being in ruins, abu-'Ubaid or-
dered it repaired. Over this bridge, abu-'Ubaid and the
Moslems crossed from al-Marwahah • and met dhu-1-Hajib
who was accompanied by 4,000 men armed from head to
foot, and one elephant— others say many elephants. A
fierce fight ensued, in the course of which many wounds
were inflicted on the Moslems. At this, Salit ibn-Kais said
to abu-'Ubaid, " I have warned thee against crossing this
bridge and advised thee to withdraw to some quarter and
write for reinforcements to the ' Commander of the Be-
lievers ' ; but thou hast refused." Salit fought until he was
killed. Abu-'Ubaid asked, " Which is the vulnerable point
in this creature?" and he was told that it was its trunk, 252
upon which he made a rush and struck the trunk of the ele-
1 C/. Caetani, vol. Hi, p. 14& * YaTpbi, vol. ii, p. 161.
• Yakut, vol. iv, p. 505.
403
404
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
phant. Abu-Mihjan ibn-Habib ath-Thakafi also charged
the elephant and struck and broke its leg. The " polythe-
ists ", thereupon, made an attack which resulted in the
death of abu-'Ubaid. Others say that the elephant threw
its weight upon him and crushed him.1
The Moslems who fell. After abu-'Ubaid, the flag was
carried by his brother, al-Hakam, who was then killed, and
the flag passed to the hands of his son, Jabr, who also fell.
Al-Muthanna 2 ibn-Harithah carried it for one hour, after
which he withdrew his men as some of them defended the
others. On this occasion, 'Urwah ibn-Zaid al-Khail fought
so fiercely that his action was estimated to be equivalent to
that of a whole group of men.
Among those who took part in the defense of the Mos-
lems on the west bank of the river, was the poet abu-Zubaid
at-Ta'i, who happened to be at al-Hirah on some personal
business. Abu-Zubaid was a Christian.
Al-Muthanna came and occupied Ullais and communi-
cated the news in a letter to 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab sent with
'Urwah ibn-Zaid.
Among those killed in the battle of al-Jisr [the bridge],
according to abu-Mikhnaf , was abu-Zaid al- An sari, one of
those who compiled the Koran in the days of the Prophet.
The battle of al-Jisr was fought on Saturday at the end
of Ramadan, year 13.
Abu-'Ubaid al-Kasim ibn-Sallam from Kais ibn-abi-
Hazim : — As abu-'Ubaid was crossing Banikiya with a band
of followers, the " polytheists " cut the bridge and many
of his men lost their lives. Isma'il ibn-abi-Khalid adds that
abu-'Amr ash-Shaibani stated that the battle of Mihran was
fought at the beginning of the year, and al-Kadisiyah at the
end of it.
1 Tabari, vol. i, pp. 2178-2179; Athir, vol. ii, pp. 33^-333.
1 Dinawari, p. 119.
CHAPTER IV
The Battle of Mihran or an-Nukhailah 253
Jarir ibn-' Abdalldh' s campaign in al-'Irak. According
to abu-Mikhnaf and others, for one year after the calamity
that befell abu-'Ubaid and Salit, 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab re-
framed from the mention of the name of al-'Irak. In the
meantime, al-Muthanna ibn-Harithah was staying in the
region of Ullais summoning the Arabs to the " holy war ".
At last 'Umar invited the Moslems to an expedition to al-
'Irak, but they kept aloof and hesitated to go there, so much
so that he was on the point of carrying the expedition in
person. Now, a body of al-Azd came to 'Umar intent on
the invasion of Syria ; but he asked them to go to al-'Ir&k
and aroused their interest in the spoils to be taken from the
Kisra family. They left it for him to choose for them, and
he ordered them to start [for al-'Irak].
Jarir ibn-'Abdallah came from as- Sarah at the head of the
Bajilah x tribe, and offered to go to al-'Irak, provided one-
quarter of what they took possession of be allotted to him
and his men. 'Umar accepted the offer and Jarir started
towards al-'Irak. Some claim that he went via al-Basrah
and had a conflict with the satrap [Marzuban] of al-Ma-
dhar, whom he defeated. Others claim that the conflict with
the Marzuban took place when Jarir was in the company of
Khalid ibn-al-Walid. Still others assert that Jarir took the
road to al-'Udhaib, passing through Faid and ath-Tha'-
labiyah.
1 Tabari, vol. i, p. 2186; Caetani, vol. iii, p. 155.
405
4o6 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
'Affan ibn-Muslim from ash-Sha'bi : — Af ter the death of
abu-'Ubaid, who was the first to be directed by TJmar to
al-Kufah, 'Umar directed Jarir ibn-'Abdallah there, saying,
" Wouldst thou go to al-'Irak if I allow thee one-third of
the spoils after the [usual] fifth has been taken?" and
Jarir said, " I will/'
Dair Hind. The Moslems assembled in Dair Hind l in
the year 14 immediately after the death of Shirawaih, and
the succession of Buran, daughter of Kisra, who was to rule
until Yazdajird ibn-Shahriyar came of age. Yazdajird*
sent against them Mihran ibn-Mihribundadh al-Hamadhani
at the head of 12,000 men. The Moslems offered no resist-
ance until he crossed the bridge on the Euphrates and ar-
rived next to Dair al-A'war.s
The battle of al-Buwaib. It is reported by Saif that
Mihran, after crossing al-Jisr [the bridge], came to a place
called al-Buwaib.4 It was in this place that he was killed.
Someone has said that the irregularities in the land of
al-Buwaib were filled up with bones in the time of the civil 254
war,5 made level with the surface and covered with pow-
dered soil [and that whenever the soil was removed the
bones were seen].6 The spot lay between as-Sakun [canal]
and the banu-Sulaim [canal] .7 This was the place in which
the water of the Euphrates sank in the time of the Kisras
and from which it poured into al-Jauf.8
1 A convent near al-Qirah. Hamadhani, Buldan, p. 183 ; Bakri, pp.
362-364; Yakut, vol. ii, pp. 707-709.
1 Cf. Dinawari, p. 125 ; Tabari, vol. i, p. 2163.
1 Yakut, vol. ii, p. 644.
4 Ibid., vol. i, p. 764.
•The reference is, perhaps, to the insurrection of Mus/ab ibn-az-
Zubair.
• The text is corrupt T Tabari, vol. i, p. 2191.
• Ibid., vol. i, p. 2187, lines 12-13; cf. Caetani, vol. iii, pp. 256-257.
THE BATTLE OF MIHRAN
407
The Moslems camped at an-Nukhailah l and were led, ac-
cording to the Bajilah, by Jarir ibn-'Abdallah, and, accord-
ing to the Rabi'ah, by al-Muthanna ibn-Harithah. Others
affirm that the Moslems were commanded in turn by the
heads of the various tribes. The Moslems met their enemy,
and Shurahbil ibn-as-Simt al-Kindi distinguished himself
in the fight that ensued. Mas'ud ibn-H&rithah was slain.
So al-Muthanna said, " Fear not, Moslems, because my
brother is killed. Such is the fate of the best among you."
Upon this, the Moslems charged, as if they were one body,
with confidence and patience which resulted, by Allah's
help, in the death of Mihran and the defeat of the " infi-
dels ,,.a The Moslems pursued them with slaughter; and
few were those who escaped. On this day, Kurt ibn-Jam-
•rnah al-'Abdi applied his sword until its edge was bent.
When the night fell, they returned to their camp. This took
place in the year 14.
The death of Mihran was effected by Jarir ibn-'Abdallah
and al-Mundhir ibn-Hassan ibn-Dirar ad-Dabbi, each one
• • • • *
of whom claimed that he had killed him, which led to a
fierce dispute.8 At last, al-Mundhir carried away Mihran's
belt; and Jarir, the rest of the spoils from him. Some as-
sert that among those who killed him was al-Hisn ibn-Ma'-
bad ibn-Zurarah ibn-'Udas at-Tamimi.
Moslem raids. After this victory, the Moslems did not
cease to make raids in the regions between al-Hirah and
Kaskar, Sura, Barbisma [?] and Sarat4 J&masib and
between al-Fallujatain, an-Nahrain and 'Ain-at-Tamr.5
1 Yakut, vol. iv, pp. 771-772.
■ Cf. Mas'udi, vol. iv, pp. 205-206.
?• Yustif, p. 16, lines 16-17.
4 Cf. Dinawari, p. 121.
?'• See Le Strange, The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate, p. 25, map.
4o8 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
The Moslems also attacked Hisn Malikiya, which was
a watching post, and reduced it. They drove the Persians
from other watching posts at at-Taff, the Persians by this
time having become emaciated and having become weak and
feeble in power. Certain Moslems crossed Nahr [canal]
Sura and came to Kutha, Nahr al-Malik and Baduraiya;
some reaching as far as Kalwadha. The Arabs in these raz- 255
zias lived on what they plundered.
There are those who say that between the battles of Mih-
ran and al-Kadisiyah, 18 months elapsed.
CHAPTER V
The Battle of al-Kadisiyah
'Utnar sends Sa'd ibn-abi-Wakkas. The Moslems wrote
to 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab telling him of the great number
of the Persians massing against them, and asked for rein-
forcements. 'Umar desired to lead the razzia in person
»and collected an army for that purpose; but he was ad-
vised by al-' Abbas ibn-'Abd-al-Muttalib and other sheikhs
from among the Companions of the Prophet to stay at
home and send out the forces and troops; and 'Umar did
that. 'AH ibn-abi-Talib advised him to go himself; but
'Umar replied, " I have made up my mind to stay." 'Umar
proposed to 'Ali the idea of going; but the latter refused,
upon which 'Umar wanted Sa'id ibn-Zaid ibn-'Amr ibn-
Nuf ail al-'Adawi to go. Finally, it occurred to him to send
Sa'd ibn-abi-Wakkas, which he did. The name of abu-
Wakkas was Malik ibn-Uhaib ibn-'Abd-Manaf ibn-Zuh-
• • •
rah ibn-Kilab. Sa'd was a man of valor and a good shot.
Others say that at this time Sa'id ibn-Zaid ibn-'Amr was
on an expedition in Syria.
Sa'd proceeded to al-'Irak and stayed at ath-Tha'labiyah
for three months, in the course of which all the troops over-
took him. Thence he came, in the year 15, to al-'Udhaib.
Al-Muthanna ibn-Harithah happened to be ill at that time,
and he advised Sa'd to meet the enemy between al-Kadisi-
yah and al-'Udhaib. His case soon became serious and he
was carried to his clan among whom he died. Sa'd mar-
ried his wife.
409
4I0 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Rustam. According to al-Wakidi, al-Muthanna died be-
fore Rustam came to al-Kadisiyah. This Rustam, who
was from ar-Rai — or from Hamadhan as others say — came
and occupied Burs from which he left for a place between
al-Hirah and as-Sailahin, where he stayed for four months
without trying measures or fighting with the Moslems. The
Moslems, in the meantime, lay camped between al-'Udhaib
and al-Kadisiyah. Rustam sent ahead of him dhu-l-Ha-
jib, who camped at Tizanabadh. The " polytheists " num-
bered about 120,000, and were accompanied by thirty ele-
phants, and had a great banner called Dirafsh Kabiyan;1
while the Moslems, taken together, numbered between 9,000 256
and 10,000. When the Moslems were in need of fodder
or food, they sent horsemen into the interior of the land
who would make raids along the lower course of the Eu-
phrates. From al-Madinah, 'Umar used to send them
sheep and camels for slaughter.
Al-Mughirah reinforces Sa'd. Al-Basrah was built some-
time between the battle of an-Nukhailah and al-Kadisiyah
by 'Utbah ibn-Ghazwan. When 'Utbah asked leave for a
pilgrimage, he assigned as successor al-Mughirah ibn-Shu'-
bah, who was confirmed in his position by a letter from
'Umar. Before long, the charge 2 that was brought against
al-Mughirah was brought against him, and 'Umar ap-
pointed abu-Musa governor of al-Basrah and recalled al-
Mughirah to al-Madinah. Later, 'Umar sent al-Mughirah
back to al-Basrah together with those who gave witness
against him. Now, on the day of the battle of al-Kadisi-
yah, 'Umar wrote to abu-Musa, ordering him to reinforce
1or Dirafshikabiyan. In Persian: dirafsh-i-K&wiy&n = the royal
standard of die Sassanians; see Vullers' Persian Dictionary; Tabari,
vol. i, p. 2175.
'Of having immoral relations with umm-Jamil, which is discussed
later by al-Baladhuri. See abu-1-Fida, vol. i, p. 163.
THE BATTLE OF AL-KADISIYAH 4II
Sa'd; upon which abu-Miisa sent al-Mughirah with 800
(others say 400) men. Having taken part in the battle, al-
Mughirah returned to al-Madinah.
Kais reinforces Sa'd. In the meantime, 'Umar wrote to
abu-'Ubaidah ibn-al-Jarrah, and he sent to the reinforce-
ment of Sa'd Kais ibn-Hubairah ibn-al-Makshuh al-Mu-
radi, who according to some, took part in the battle of al-
Kadisiyah, and according to others, did not arrive until the
battle was over. Kais commanded 700 men.
The battle of al-Kadisiyah took place at the end of the
year 16. Some say that it was 'Utbah ibn-Ghazwan who
sent al-Mughirah to the reinforcement of Sa'd, that al-
Mughirah was assigned governor of al-Basrah only after he
returned from al-Kadisiyah and that 'Umar, after calling
al-Mughirah back to al-Madinah because of the charge
brought against him, never sent him out of al-Madinah ex-
cept when he assigned him governor of al-Kufah.
Al-'Abb&s ibn-al-Walid an-Narsi from ash-Sha'bi: —
'Umar wrote to abu-'Ubaidah, " Send to al-Kadisiyah Kais
ibn-Makshuh at the head of the men he invites to join him."
Kais summoned a body of men and arrived, at the head of
700 of them, to find the victory already won by Sa'd. Kais's
men asked for a share in the booty. Sa'd wrote to 'Umar,
who wrote back, " If Kais arrived before the burial of
those that were killed, then thou shouldst give him his
share."
Al-Mughirah's interview with Rustam. Rustam asked
Sa'd to send some companions of his to consult with him.
Sa'd delegated al-Mughirah ibn-Shu'bah. Al-Mughirah
betook himself towards Rustam's throne, in order to sit by
him, but was not allowed to do so by the Persian cavalry
guard [asdwirah]. Rustam said many things, among
which was the following, " I have learned that ye were
forced to what ye are doing by nothing but the narrow 257
412
THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
means of livelihood and by poverty. We are ready to give
you what will satisfy you, and to see you leave with certain
things that ye choose." * Al-Mughirah answered, " Allah
has sent us his Prophet by following and obeying whom
we were made prosperous, and he has ordered us to fight
those who differ from our faith ' Until they pay tribute
out of hand and in a humbled state \f We, therefore, call
thee to the worship of Allah alone and the belief in his Pro-
phet, which if thou shouldst do, well and good; otherwise,
the sword will decide between us." Rustam, snorting with
anger, said, " By the sun and by the moon, the day will not
break to-morrow before we kill you all." " No strength
and no force but in Allah," answered al-Mughirah, and de-
parted riding a lean horse with a sword broken at its edge
and wrapped up in rags.8
'Amr and al-Ash'ath interview Rustam. 'Umar wrote
to Sa'd instructing him to send to the magnate of the Per-
sians a delegation to invite him to Isl&m. Accordingly,
Sa'd sent 'Amr ibn-Ma'dikarib az-Zubaidi and al-Ash'ath
ibn-Kais al-Kindi at the head of a delegation. They passed
by Rustam, and on being brought before him, he asked
them, " To whom are ye going? " to which they replied,
" To your chief." A long conversation followed in which
they said, " Our Prophet has promised us the conquest of
your land," upon which Rustam called for a palm-leaf
basket full of soil and said, " This is for you from our
land !" 'Amr ibn-Ma'dikarib immediately arose, spread his
cloak and departed, carrying in it some of the soil. When
he was asked later, " Why didst thou do that? ". 'Amr re-
plied, " Because I considered it a good omen, indicating that
1 Dinawari, p. 127; Tabari, vol. i, p. 2271.
2 Koran, 9:29.
1 Tabari, vol. i, p. 2270.
THE BATTLE OF AL-KADIS1YAH 4^3
their land will one day be ours, and we will take possession
of it." Finally, they presented themselves before the king
and invited him to Isl&m. The king became angry and or-
dered them to leave, saying, " Had ye not been envoys, I
would have put you to death !" He also wrote and rebuked
Rustam for sending them to him.
A Moslem forage expedition. Later, a forage expedi-
tion l of the Moslems, headed by Zuhrah ibn-Hawiyah ibn-
'Abdallah ibn-Katadah at-Tamimi — later as-Sa'di — (others
say it was headed by Katadah ibn-Hawiyah2), came across
some Persian cavalry, which was the occasion for the final
conflict. The Persians rallied to the succor of their cavalry, 258
and the Moslems to those on their expedition ; and a fierce
battle raged between the two. The time was an afternoon.
'Amr ibn-Ma'dikarib az-Zubaidi rushed forward and, seiz-
ing a Persian chief by the neck, lifted him to the saddle in
front of him, saying [to his men] , "I am abu-Thaur ! Do ye
as I do ! " He then stabbed the nose of one of the elephants,
saying, " Apply your swords to their trunks ; the vulnerable
point in the elephant is his trunk."
Sa'd slaps his wife. Sa'd ibn-abi-Wakkas had, for a
special reason, appointed Khalid ibn-'Urfutah-l-'Udhri, an
ally of the banu-Zuhrah, to be commander of the army and
director of the affairs of the Moslems. Sa'd lived in Kasr
[tower] al-'Udhaib. His wife, Salma, daughter of Hafsah
of the tribe of the banu-Taimall&h ibn-Tha'labah, and for-
merly the wife of al-Muthanna ibn-Harithah, often re-
peated, " O, Muthanna ! But there is no more Muthanna
to aid the cavalry !" Hearing that, Sa'd slapped her on the
face; upon which she said, "Is it jealousy or cowardice,
Sa'd?"
1 Ar. 'altofoh.
1 JJajar, vol. ii, p. 23.
4i4 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Abu-Mihjan in prison. Abu-Mihjan ath-Thakafi1 was
alienated to Ba<jli' * by 'Ulnar ibn-al-Khattab in punishment
for his being addicted to wine. He somehow managed to
run away and followed Sa'd; he, according to al-Wakidi,
not being one of those who had started with Sa'd. In the
army of Sa'd, abu-Mihjan again drank wine on account of
which Sa'd flogged and imprisoned him in al-'Udhaib tower.
Here he asked Zabra', a concubine of Sa'd, to release him
that he might take part in the fight, promising to return to
his fetters.* She made him swear by Allah that he would
do so if released. Riding on Sa'd's mare, he rushed on the
Persians, pierced through their line and thrust his sword
into the nose of the white elephant. Sa'd who was watch-
ing him, said, " The mare is mine ; but the charge is that of
abu-Mihjan." Abu-Mihjan then returned to his fetters.
Others say that it was Salma, daughter of Hafsah, who
gave him the mare ; but the former report is ttiore authentic
When the question of Rustam was settled, Sa'd said to abu-
Mihjan, " By Allah, I shall never punish thee for wine
after seeing what I saw of thee." " As for me," an-
swered abu-Mihjan, "by Allah, I shall never drink it
again." 4
The slayer of Rustam. On that day, Tulaihah ibn-Khu-
wailid al-Asadi distinguished himself in fighting, and with
a blow, cut the under-helmet of al-Jalinus, but did not in-
jure his head. On the same occasion, Kais ibn-Makshuh
turned to the people and said, " To be killed is the fate of
the noble. Let not those ' uncircumcised ' have more pa-
^usuf, pp. 17-18; Mas'udi, vol. xv, pp. 213-219; al-'I^d al-Forid,
vol. Hi, p. 407.
*Hamdani, p. 133, 1. 22; p. 41, 1. 7: "Nasi1"; Yakut, vol. if p. 471;
Tabari, vol. i, p. 2480.
1 Dinawari, p. 129.
4 Mas'udi, vol. iv, p. 219; Athir, vol. ii, p. 369.
THE BATTLE OF ALKADIS1YAH 415
tience or be more anxious to die than yourselves." Saying
this, he rushed and fought fiercely. By Allah's help, Rus- 259
tarn was slain and his body was found covered with so many
blows and stabs that the one who gave the fatal blow could
not be determined. 'Amr ibn-Ma'dikarib, T^aihah ibn-
Khuwailid al-Asadi, l£urt ibn-Jammah al-'Abdi and pirar
ibn-al-Azwar al-Asadi had all rushed at him. This Dirar, ac-
cording to al-Wakidi, was killed in the battle of al-Yama-
mah. Some say that Rustam was killed by Zuhair ibn-
'Abd-Shams al-Bajali ; others, by 'Auwam ibn-'Abd-Shams ;
and still others by Hilal ibn-'Ullafah at-Taimi.1
This battle of al-K4disiyah was fought on Thursday,
Friday and the night of Saturday, which last was since
called " Lailat al-Harir ".* The night of the battle of Sif-
f in was also thus called.
Some say that Kais ibn-Makshuh took no part in the fight
at al-Kadisiyah, having arrived there after the Moslems
had been through with the fighting.
Salman ibn-Rab?ah's part Ahmad ibn-Salman al-Ba-
hili from certain sheikhs: — Salmin ibn-Rabi'ah invaded
Syria in the company of abu-Umamah as-Sudai ibn-'Ajlin
al-Bahili, and took part in the battles fought by the Moslems
there. He then went forth to al-'Irak together with those
who, under great urgency, hastened to al-Kadisiyah as a
reinforcement, and took part in the decisive conflict. He
settled at al-Kufah and was killed in Balanjar.
According to al-Wakidi, a group of Persians, planting
their banner firmly in the ground, said, " We shall not leave
our position until we die;" upon which Salman ibn-Rabi'ah-
l-B&hili made an attack and killed them, carrying their ban-
ner away.
1 Ya'kubi, vol. ii, p. 165.
s The night of yells of pain. Caetani, vol. iii, pp. 643, 675; Skvutn,
vol. vi, p. 75 ; Tabari, vol. i, p. 2327.
4I6 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Khdlid ibn-'Urf Utah's part. Sa'd sent Khalid ibn-'Urf u-
tah at the head of the cavalry charged with pursuing the
enemy. Khalid and his men killed every one they over-
took until they arrived in Burs. Here Khalid was the guest
of one, Bistam, who treated him with kindness and loyalty.
A canal that ran there was called Nahr Bistam. Khalid
then passed through as-Sarah [canal] and caught up with
Jalinus. Kathir ibn-Shihab al-Harithi charged Jalinus and
stabbed him, and according to others, killed him. Ibn-al-
Kalbi says, that it was Zuhrah ibn-Hawiyah as-Sa'di who
killed him. The former report is more authentic.
The Persians fled to al-Mada'in, following Yazdajird
[their king]. Sa'd immediately communicated with 'Umar,
announcing the victory and giving the names of those who
had fallen.
The Persian arrows. Abu-Raja* al-Farisi from his
grandfather : — The latter said : " I took part in the battle
of al-K&disiyah when I was still a Magian. When the
Arabs sent their arrows against us, we began to shout, 260
' duk ! duk !' * by which we meant, spindles. These spindles,
however, continued to shower upon us, until we were over-
whelmed. Our archer would send the arrow from his Na-
wakiyah bow, but it would not do more than attach itself
to the garment of an Arab ; whereas their arrow would tear
the coat of mail and the double cuirass that we had on/'
According to Hishim ibn-al-Kalbi, the first to kill a Per-
sian in the battle of al-Kadisiyah was Rabi'ah ibn-'Uth-
man ibn-Rabi'ah of the banu-Nasr ibn-Mu'awiyah ibn-
Bakr ibn-Hawazin ibn-Mansur.
In this battle, Sa'd ibn-'Ubaid al-Ansari fell a martyr. 262
His death afflicted 'Umar so much that he said, " His death
almost marred the joy of the victory for me."
1 Yusuf, p. 16: "dus!" Cf. Tabari, vol. i, p. 2236.
CHAPTER VI
The Conquest of al-Mada'in
An-Nakhirkhan slain by Zuhair. After the battle of al-
Kadisiyah, the Moslems started off, and after passing Dair
[monastery] Ka'b [?],x they were met by an-Nakhir-
khan,* who appeared at the head of a large body of men from
al-Mada'in.8 In the conflict that ensued, Zuhair ibn-Sulaim
al-Azdi seized an-Nakhirkhan by the neck; and they both
fell to the ground. Zuhair took a dagger that was in the
other man's belt and cut open his abdomen, thereby putting
him to death.
Bahurasir. Sa'd and the Moslems went and occupied
Sab&t. They then assembled in the city of Bahurasir,4
which lay in the Shikk al-Kufah [western bank of the
Tigris], where they spent nine months (others say i8),B
during which they ate fresh dates for two seasons. The
inhabitants of that city fought against them until they could
offer no more resistance, at which the Moslems entered the
city. When the city was thus reduced, Yazdajird ibn-Shah-
riy&r, the Persian king, resolved to flee and was suspended
in a basket from the wall of al-Abya$ fort in al-Mada'in
and was therefore called by the Nabateans Barzabil [the 263
1 Yusuf, p. 17, 1. 8: "Dair al-Masalifr" (?).
' Tabari, in Noldeke, Geschichte der Perser, pp. I5>i53-
* Seleucia-Ctesiphon. Meynard, DietionnaUre de la Perse, p. 518.
4 Noldeke, Perser, p. 16, n. 4.
'Dinawari, p. 153.
417
4I8 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
son of the basket]. Yazdajird thence left for Hulwan x with
the principal dignitaries of his kingdom, and carried with
him the treasury of the kingdom, his precious but light1
pieces of furniture, private treasury, wives and children.
In the year in which he fled, plague and famine ravaged all
Persia. The Moslems then crossed [the Tigris] through a
ford, and took possession of the city on the eastern bank
of the river.
The Arabs cross the Tigris. 'Affan ibn-Muslim from abu-
Wa'il : — The latter said, " When the Persians were put to
flight at al-Kadisiyah, we pursued them. They reunited
at Kutha8 and we pursued them until we reached the
Tigris, at which the Moslems said, 'Why do you gaze at this
small body of water? Let us wade through.'4 Accord-
ingly, we waded through, and once more put the enemy to
flight."
Muhatnmad ibn-Sa'd from Aban ibn-Salih : — When they
were defeated at al-Kadisiyah, the fugitive Persians came
to al-Mada'in. The Moslems having arrived at the Tigris,
whose water was flowing higher than ever, found that the
Persians had removed the ships and ferry-boats to the east-
ern bank and burned the bridge. Sa'd and the Moslems find-
ing no way to cross over were greatly afflicted. At last, Sa'd
chose one of the Moslems who swam across on horseback.
Likewise, the other Moslems crossed on horseback and, on
landing, made the owners of the ships transport the bag-
gage. Seeing that, the Persians said, " By Allah, those we
are fighting are nothing less than demons [jinn] !" and they
took to flight.
1 Ya^ut, vol. ii, p. 312.
1 Ar. khiff; Caetani, vol. iii, p. 724. takes it to be khaffa and stretches
the meaning into "ma abbandonando in gran parte le sue masserizie".
Cf. Dinawari, p. 133.
• Yakut, vol. iv, p. 318.
4 Text not dear. Caetani, vol. iii, p. 7*3-
THE CONQUEST OF AL-MADA'IN 4lg
Sabat and ar-Rumiyah. 'Abbas ibn-Hisham from
'Awanah ibn-al-Hakam, and abu-'Ubaidah Ma'mar ibn-al-
Muthanna from abu-'Amr ibn-al-'Ala' : — Sa'd ibn-abi-Wak-
•
kas sent at the head of the van of his army Khalid ibn-'Ur-
f Utah, who succeeded in reducing Sabat 1 before Sa'd's ar-
rival. Khalid proceeded and camped at ar-Rumiyah 2 until
its people made terms, agreeing to have those of them who
wanted to leave, do so, and those who wanted to stay, stay,
on condition that they offer homage and give counsel, pay
kharaj, and act as guides for the Moslems, without enter-
taining any treachery against them. Sa'd [in crossing the
river] found no ferry-boats, but was shown a ferry near
as-Saiyadin village. The horses waded through while the
Persians shot them with their arrows. All the Moslems,
however, escaped, and only one of them from the tribe of 264
Taiyi', whose full name was Salil ibn-Yazid ibn-Malik as-
Sinbisi, was killed.
Kisra's concubines. 'Abdallah ibn-Salih from ash-
Sha'bi :— The latter said, " In the battle of al-Mada'in, the
Moslems carried away many of Kisra's maids [concubines]
who had been brought from all quarters of the world and
lavishly adorned for him. My mother was one of them.
On that day, too, the Moslems found camphor and, taking
it for salt, put it in their cooking-pans." 8
According to al-Wakidi, Sa'd was all done with the con-
quest of al-Mada'in and Jalula' in the year 16.
1 Sometimes called' Sabat Kxsra. Yakut, vol. i, p. 3 ; Caetani, vol. iii,
p. 724, 1. 4.
1 Perhaps a suburb of Mada'in. Yakut, vol. ii, p. 867.
*Dinawari, p. 134; Yusuf, p. 17.
CHAPTER VII
The Battle of Jalula'
A description of the battle. After spending several days
in al-Mada'in, the Moslems received word that Yazdajird
had massed a great host, which was then at Jalula', and had
directed it against them. Sa'd ibn-abi-Wakkas thereupon
dispatched Hashim ibn-'Utbah ibn-abi-Wakkas at the head
of 12,000 men to meet them. The Moslems found that the
Persians, having left their families and heavy baggage at
Khanikin,1 had dug trenches and fortified themselves, bind-
ing themselves with a pledge never to flee. Reinforcements
were coming to them all the time from Hulwan and al-Jibal
[the mountains, t. e., Media]. The Moslems, thinking it
best to hasten the attack before the reinforcements became
too strong, met them with Hujr ibn-'Adi-l-Kindi command-
ing the right wing, 'Amr ibn-Ma'dikarib commanding the
cavalry and Tulaihah ibn-Khuwailid commanding the in-
fantry. The Persians were on this occasion led by Khur-
razad, a brother of Rustam. The fight that ensued was the
fiercest they ever had, in which arrows and lances were used
until broken to pieces, and swords were applied until they
were bent. Finally the Moslems altogether made one on-
slaught and drove the Persians from their position,
putting them to flight. The Persians fled away and the
Moslems kept pursuing them at their very heels with fear-
ful slaughter until darkness intervened and they had to re-
turn to their camp.
1 Yakut, vol. ii, p. 303-
420
THE BATTLE OF JALOLA' 421
Hashim ibn-'Utbah left Jarir ibn-'Abdall&h in Jalula'
with a heavy force of cavalry to act as a check between the
Moslems and their enemy. Yazdajird thereupon left Hul- 265
win.
Mahrudh. The Moslems carried on many raids in the re-
gions of as-Sawad on the east bank of the Tigris. Com-
ing to Mahrudh,1 H&shim made terms with its dihk&n,
stipulating that the latter should pay a jarib of dirhams [ ?]
and the former should not kill any of the men.
Ad-Daskarah. On a charge of treachery, against the
Moslems, Hashim put the dihkan of ad-Daskarah * to death.
Al-Bandanijain. H&shim then proceeded to al-Bandani-
jain,8 whose inhabitants sued for peace, agreeing to pay tax
and khardj. Consequently, Hashim promised them security.
Khdnikin. At Khanikin there was a small remnant of
the Persians against whom Jarir ibn-'Abdallah now
marched and whom he put to death. Thus was no region
of the Sawad Dijlah left unconquered by the Moslems or
unpossessed by them.
According to Hisham ibn-al-Kalbi, the leader of the
army in the battle of Jalula' in behalf of Sa'd was 'Amr
ibn-'Utbah ibn-Naufal ibn-Uhaib ibn-'Abd-Manaf ibn-
Zuhrah whose mother was 'Atikah, daughter of abu-Wak-
kas.
• *
After the battle of Jalula', Sa'd left for al-Mada'in where
he gathered a host of men, and then kept on his way to the
region of al-Hirah.
The battle of Jalula' took place at the close of the year 16.
The converts. Those who embraced Islam were among
others, Busbuhra — the dihkan of al-Falalij and an-Nahrain,
1 Yakut, vol. iv, p. 700.
1 Ibid.t vol. ii, p. 575; Noldeke, Perser, p. 295, n. 1.
8 Persian : Bandanikan ; Yakut, vol. i, p. 745.
422 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Bistam ibn-Narsi — the dihkdn of Babil and Khutarni-
• • •
yah,1 ar-Rufail — the dihkan of al-'Al,2 and Fairuz — the
dihkdn of Nahr al-Malik8 and Kutha. 'Umar ibn-al-
Khattab did not interfere with them but left their lands in
their own hands and annulled the poll-tax they paid.
Hds hint's campaign. Abu-Mas'ud al-Kufi from 'Awa-
nah's father: — Sa'd ibn-abi-Wakkas dispatched Hashim
ibn-'Utbah ibn-abi-Wakkas accompanied by al-Ash'ath ibn-
Kais al-Kindi. Hashim passed through ar-Radhanat 4 and
visited Dakuka and Khanijar, conquering all that region
together with all the district of Bajarma. Hashim pene-
trated towards Sinn Barimma 5 and Bawazij al-Mulk as far
as the border of Shahrazur.
'U mar's message to Sa'd. Al-Husain ibn-al- As wad from
Yazid ibn-abi-Habib : — When Sa'd ibn-abi-Wakkas com-
pleted the conquest of as-Sawad, he received the following
letter from 4Umar ibn-al-Khattab :
" I have received thy letter in which thou statest that thy
men have asked thee to divide among them whatever spoils 266
Allah has assigned them. At the receipt of my letter, find
out what possessions and horses the troops on ' horses and
camels ' * have acquired and divide that among them, after
taking away one-fifth. As for the land and camels, leave
them in the hands of those men who work them, so that
they may be included in the stipends [pensions] of the Mos-
lems. If thou dividest them among those present, nothing
will be left for those who come after them."
1 Yakut, vol. ii, p. 453-
f Y4*ait, vol. iii, p. 59*-
' Ibid* vol. iv, p. 846.
4 Ibid* vol. ii, p. 729.
• Ibid., vol iii, p. 169.
*Kor., 50:6.
THE BATTLE OF JALOLA' 423
How the land and the inhabitants of as-Sawad should be
considered. AJ-Husain from 'Abdallah ibn-Hazim: — The
latter said, " I once asked Mujahid regarding the land of
as-Sawad and he answered, ' It can neither be bought nor
sold/ This is because it was taken by force and was not
divided. It belongs to all the Moslems/'
Al-Walid ibn-Salih from Sulaiman ibn-Yasar: — 'Umar
ibn-al-Khattab left as-Sawad for those who were still in
men's loins and mothers' wombs [*. e., posterity], consider-
ing the inhabitants dhimmis from whom tax should be
taken on their person, and kharaj on their land. They are
therefore dhimmis and cannot be sold as slaves.
The following statement was made by Sulaiman : " Al-
Walid ibn-'Abd-al-Malik wanted to consider the inhabitants
of as-Sawad as having been acquired without fighting [Ar.
/at'] ; but when I told him of the position 'Umar took re-
garding them, Allah prevented him from doing so/'
Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from Harithah ibn-Mudarrib :
— 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab, desiring to divide as-Sawad
among the Moslems, ordered that they be counted. Each
Moslem had three peasants for his share. 'Umar took the
advice of the Prophet's Companions, and 'Ali said, " Leave
them that they may become a source of revenue and aid l
for the Moslems." Accordingly, 'Umar sent 'Uthman ibn-
Hunaif al-Ansari who assessed on each man 48, 24, or 12
[dirhams].
Abu-Nasr at-Tammar from 'AH : — The latter said, " If
ye were not to strike one another on the face [have civil
war] I would divide as-Sawad among you."
Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from 'Amir: — The people of
as-Sawad have no covenant, rather they came under our
control by surrender.
1 Ar. mdddah; see on-Nik&yah, vol. iv, p. 84.
i
424 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Al-Husain from ash-Sha'bi: — The latter was asked 267
whether the people of as-Sawad had a covenant, to which
he replied, " At first, they had none ; but when the Mos-
lems consented to take kharaj from them, then they came to
have one."
Al-Husain from 'Amir : — The latter said, " The people
of as-Sawad have no covenant."
The Magians. 'Amr an-Nakid from Ja'far ibn-Muham-
mad's father: — The Emigrants had a sitting place in the
mosque in which 'Umar used to discuss with them the news
he received from the different regions. One day he said, "I
know not how to treat the Magians;" upon which 'Abd-
ar- Rahman ibn-*Auf rose and said, " I bear witness that the
Prophet said, ' Treat them according to the same law with
which ye treat the People of the Book \"
The Bajilah's share in as-Sawad. Muhammad ibn-as-
Sabbah al-Bazzaz from Kais ibn-abi-Hazim : — The Baji-
lah tribe constituted one-fourth of the Moslems in the battle
of al-Kadisiyah, and 'Umar had allotted them one-fourth
of as-Sawad. Once when Jarir [ibn-'Abdallah] called on
'Umar, the latter said, "Had I not been responsible for
what I divide, I would leave to you the share already given ;
but I see that the Moslems have multiplied, so ye have to
restore what ye have taken." Jarir and the others did as
'Umar said; and 'Umar offered Jarir a present of 80
dindrs.1
A woman of the tribe of Bajilah, called umm-Kurz, came
to 'Umar and said, " My father died and his share in as-
Sawad holds good. I shall never d<eliver it !" 'Umar turned
to her and said, " But, umm-Kurz, thy people have all con-
sented to do so." " I shall never consent," said she, " un-
less thou carry me on a submissive she-camel covered with
1 Yusuf , p. 18.
THE BATTLE OF JALOLA' 425
a red nappy mantle [An katifah] and fill both of my hands
with gold," which 'Umar did.
Al-Husain from Jarir : — 'Umar gave to the Bajilah one-
quarter of as-Sawad which they held for three years.
Kais said : — " Jarir ibn-'Abdallah accompanied by 'Am-
rnar ibn-Yasir called on 'Umar who said, ' Had I not been 268
held responsible for what I divide, I would leave to you the
shares already given ; but I see now that ye ought to restore
what ye have taken.9 And they did, upon which 'Umar of-
fered a present of 80 dinars to Jarir." *
According to a tradition communicated by al-Hasan*
ibn-'Uthman az-Ziyadi on the authority of Kais, 'Umar
gave Jarir ibn-'Abdallah 400 dindrs.
Humaid ibn-ar-Rabi' from al-Hasan ibn-Salih: — 'Umar
gave the Bajilah, in exchange for the fourth of as-Sawad
they held, a stipend of 2,000 dirhams.
Al-Walid ibn-Salih from Jarir ibn-Yazid ibn- Jarir ibn-
'Abdallah's grandfather: — 'Umar allotted to Jarir and his
men one-quarter of what they had conquered in as-Sawad.
When the spoils of Jalula' were brought together, Jarir de-
manded his quarter. Sa'd communicated the demand to
'Umar who wrote back as follows : " If Jarir wants him-
self considered as having with his men, fought for a pay
similar to the pay of al-Mu'allafah KuMbuhutn,* then ye
may give them their pay. If, however, they have fought
in Allah's cause and will accept his remuneration, then they
are part of the Moslems, having their rights and their ob-
ligations." Hearing that, Jarir said, " Truly and honestly
has the ' Commander of the Believers ' spoken. We do
not want our quarter."
1 Yafjya ibn-Adam, pp. 29 seq.
* Dhahabi, p. 244.
* Those whose hearts are won to Islam by special gifts. See De
Goeje, Mimoire, p. 51; Tabari, vol. i, p. 1679; Kor., 9:60.
426 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Al-Husain from Ibrahim an-Nakha'i: — Someone came
to 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab, saying, " I have accepted Islam
and ask thee to exempt my piece from the land-khardj,"
to which 'Uinar replied, " Thy land has been taken by
force."
Khalaf ibn-Hisham al-Bazzar from Ibrahim at-Taimi:
— When 'Umar conquered as-Sawad, the troops said to him,
" Divide it among us because we have reduced it by force
through our swords." But 'Umar refused, saying, " What
will then be left for those Moslems who come after you?
Moreover, I am afraid that if I divide it, ye may come to
be at variance with one another on account of its water."
'Umar, therefore, left the people of as-Sawad in possession
of their lands, assessing a tax on their person and a fixed
tax x on their lands which he did not divide.
A survey of as-Sawad. Al-Kasim ibn-Sallam from ash- 269
Sha'bi: — 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab sent 'Uthman ibn-Hunaif
• • •
al-Ans&ri to make a survey [yamsah] of as-Sawad, which
he found to be 36,000,000 jaribs, on every jafib of which he
assessed one dirhatn and one kafiz. Al-Kasim adds, " I
heard that the kafiz was a measure of theirs also called ash-
shaburk&n" * According to Yahya ibn-Adam, it is equiva-
lent to al-makhtum al-Hajjaji.*
The tax assessed. 'Amr an-Nakid from Muhammad ibn-
' Abdallah ath-Thakafi. : — 'Umar assessed on every jarib in
as-Sawad, whether cultivated or uncultivated, provided it
was accessible to water, one dirhatn and one kafis, on every
jarib of ratbah [trefoil or clover] five dirhams and five
kafizes, and on every jarib of trees ten dirhams and ten ka-
1 Ar. fast or t**k> J- Wellhauscn, Das Arabische Reich, pp. 172-173.
Ndkleke, Perser, p. 241, n. 1 ; Caetant, vol. it, p. 930, n. 6.
* Mawardi, pp. 272, 304.
* Introduced through al-Raj jaj ibn-Yusuf who died in the year 90
A. ri. >
THE BATTLE OF JALOLA' 427
fizes (palm trees not mentioned). On every man, he as-
sessed 48, 24, or 12 dirhams as poll-tax.
Al-Kasim ibn-Sallam from abu-Mijlaz Lahik ibn-Hu-
maid: — 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab assigned 'Ammar ibn-Yasir
to act as religious head x for the people of al-Kufah and to
command their militia, 'Abdallah ibn-Mas'ud to be their
kadi and treasurer, and 'Uthman ibn-Hunaif to measure the
land. To these three, he assigned each day one goat, one-
half of which, together with the appendages 2 to be taken
by 'Ammar and the other half to be divided between the
other two. 'Uthman ibn-Hunaif measured the land and
assessed on each jarib of palm trees, 10 dirhams ; of vine
trees, 10 dirhams; of sugar-cane, 6 dirhams; of wheat, 4
dirhams; and of barley, 2 dirhams. To this end, he wrote
to 'Umar, who endorsed the assessments.
Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from 'Amr ibn-Maimun: —
'Umar ibn-al-Khattab sent Hudhaifah ibn-al-Yam&n be-
• • • •
yond the Tigris, and 'Uthman ibn-Hunaif below the Tigris ;
and they assessed on every jarib one kafiz and one dirham.
Al-Husain from Muhammad ibn-'Abdall&h ath-Tha- 270
kafi : — When al-Mughirab ibn-Shu'bah was governor of as-
Sawad, he wrote, " We find here other products than wheat
and barley," and mentioned Indian peas, grapes, clover8
and sesame, upon each of which he assessed 8 dirhams and
excluded palm-trees.4
Khalaf al-Bazzar from al-'Aizir ibn-Huraith: — 'Umar
ibn-al-Khattab assessed on one jarib of wheat two dirhams
and two jaribs; on one jarib of barley, one dirham, and
iAr. Ma as-satth; Caetani, vol. iii, p. 756, translates: "l'atitorita
cmlc"
• Ar. sawfikit. Yusuf, p. 20: " bafn » as belly.
* Ar. rafbah or rufbah may also be applied to cucumber, melon and
the like; see Caetani, vol. v, pp. 37o and 371 ; Yusuf, pp. ao-22.
4 Cf. Adam, p. 98.
428 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
one jarib ; and on every two joribs in the uncultivated land
that can be sown, one dirhatn.
Khalaf al-Bazzar from al-'Aizar ibn-Huraith: — 'Umar
assessed on one jarib of vine-trees 10 dirhams, on one jarib
of clover, 10; of cotton, 5; on one Farisi palm-tree, one
dirhatn and if of inferior quality, one dirhatn on two trees.
'Amr an-Nakid from abu-Mijlaz : — 'Umar assessed on a
jarib of palm-trees 8 dirhams.
Al-IJusain ibn-al-Aswad from ash-Sha'bi: — TJmar ibn-
al-Khattab sent 'Uthman ibn-Hunaif * who assessed on the
• • •
people of as-Sawad 5 dirhams on one jarib of clover, and
10 dirhams on one jarib of vine-trees; but he assessed no
tax on what was grown among the vines.
Al-Walid ibn-S&lih from al-Miswar ibn-Rifa'ah: —
TJmar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz said that the khar&j of as-Sawad
in the time of 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab was 100,000,000 dir-
hams; but in the time of al-Hajjaj, it amounted to 40,-
000,000.
Al-Walid from Aiyub ibn-abi-Um&mah ibn-Sahl ibn-
Hunaif 's father. — TJthman ibn-Hunaif put seals around 271
the necks1 of 550,000 of the "uncircumcised", and the
kharaj during his governorship amounted to 100,000,000.
Al-Walid ibn-Salih from Mus'ab ibn-Yazid abu-Zaid al-
Ansari's father : — The latter said, " 'Ali-ibn-abi-Talib sent
me to the land irrigated by the Euphrates, mentioning dif-
ferent cantons and villages, and naming Nahr al-Malik3
Kutha, Bahurasir, ar-Rumakan, Nahr Jaubar, Nahr Durkit
and al-Bihkubadhat. He ordered me to assess on every
jarib of wheat, if thickly sown, one dirhatn and a half and
one $df ; if thinly sown, two-thirds of a dirham and if not so
1 YaTcubi, vol. ii, pp. 173-175-
• Yusuf , p. 73, 1. 12-16 ; Caetani, vol. v, pp. 371-372.
* Yakut, vol. iv, p. 846.
THE BATTLE OF JALOLA' 429
thickly or thinly sown one dirham ; and on barley, one-half
of that. He also ordered me to assess on the gardens that
include palm-trees and other kinds, 10 dirhams per jarib;
on one jarib of vine-trees, if its trees had been planted for
three full years and a part of the fourth, and if it bears
fruit, ten dirhams, with nothing on palm-trees that are out-
side the villages and the fruits of which are eaten by the
passers-by. On vegetables, including cucumbers, grains,
sesame and cotton, he ordered me not to assess anything.
On those landlords [dihkdns] who ride mules and wear
rings of gold around their feet, he ordered me to assess 48
dirhams each ; and on those of them who are merchants of
medium means, 24 dirhams per annum each; but on the
farmers and the rest of them, 12 dirhams each."
Humaid ibn-ar-Rabi' from al-Hasan ibn-Salih: — The
• • • •
latter said, " I asked al-Hasan, ' What are those different
rates of assessed land-tax [task] ? ' And he replied, ' They,
one after the other, have been assessed according to the
nearness and distance of the land from the markets 1 and
the drinking places in the river [furad].' Yahya ibn- 272
Adam says, ' The Moslems of as- S a wad asked al-Mansur
towards the end of his caliphate to introduce the system by
which they turn over to the authorities as tax a part of the
produce of the land ; 2 but he died before the system was
introduced. Later, by al-Mahdi's orders, the system was
introduced in all places with the exception of 'Akabat
Hulwan.' "
1Mawardi, p. 306, L 12.
2Ar. muk&somah, as contrasted with misahah, is the system of land
tenure by which the khardj is levied on the produce and not the area,
and is from one-tenth to one-half of the produce of the lands. Cf.
Mawardi, p. 260; De Goeje's Baladhuri " Glossarium ", pp. 86-87;
ibn-Tikfaka, p. 215, 1. 16, p. 260, 1. 5 ; Berchem, La ProprxM Territoriale,
P. 45*
43o THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
The survey of Hudhaifah. 'Abdallah ibn-Salih al-'Ijli
from certain authorities: — Hudhaifah who measured the
surface of the land irrigated by the Tigris, died at al-Ma-
da'in. The Kanatir Hudhaifah [arches of Hudhaifah] are
named after him, because he camped near them ; but others
say because he renewed them. His cubit [Ar. dhird*], like
that of ibn-Hunaif, is the length of a man's arm, hand and
thumb, stretched out. When the inhabitants of as-Sawad
had the system of kharaj proportioned to the produce of the
land, after they had that based on the area [misahoh], one
of the officials said : " The tithe levied on the fiefs was a
tenth which was not equivalent [ ?] to one-fifth of the half
levied on the istdns [administrative districts]. Therefore,
it is necessary that there should be levied on the jarib of
the fiefs subject to the area [misahoh] system of kharaj
also one-fifth of what is levied on the jarib of the w-
tdns [ ?]." * Such was the case.
Abu-'Ubaid from Maimun ibn-Mihran: — 'Umar sent
Hudhaifah and ibn-Hunaif to Khanikin, which was one of
the first places they conquered ; and after they attached seals
to the necks of the dhimmis, they collected its khardj.
Lands confiscated by 'Umar. Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad
from 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-abi-Hurrah's father: — The latter
said, " 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab confiscated for himself ten
pieces of land in as-Sawad of which I remember seven, the
remaining three having slipped me. The lands he confis-
cated were (i) a piece covered with woods; (2) one cov-
ered with marshes; (3) one belonging to king Kisra; (4)
all of Dair Yazid ; 2 ( 5 ) the land of those who were killed
during the war; (6) the land of those who fled the country.
1 Caetani, vol. v, p. 374; Mukaddasi, p. 133.
■ Caetani, vol. v, p. 373, gives it "dayr mubad ( ? nel testo : band)".
Cf. Yusuf, p. 32, 1. 20.
THE BATTLE OF JALOLA' 43I
This state of affairs lasted until the register was burned in
the days of al-Hajjaj ibn-Yusuf, upon which the people 273
seized the [domanial] land bordering on their property." x
Abu-'Abd-ar-Rahman al-Ju'fi from 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-
abi-Hurrah's father : — 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab confiscated in
as-Sawad the land of those who were killed during the war,
the land of those who fled the country, all the land of king
Kisra, all the land belonging to Kisra's family, every
swampy place, all Dair Yazid and all the land that was ap-
propriated by Kisra for himself. Thus, the value of what
'Umar took amounted to 7,000,000 dirhams. In the battle
of [Dair] al-Jamajim, the people burnt the register and
every one of them seized what bordered on his land.
Fiefs assigned by 'Uthmdn. Al-Husain and 'Amr an-
Nakid from Musa ibn-Talhah: — 'Uthman assigned as fief
to 'Abdallah ibn-Mas'ud a piece of land in an-Nahrain ; to
'Ammar ibn- Yasir, Asbina ; 2 to Khabbab ibn-al- Aratt, Sa'-
naba; and to Sa'd [ibn-abi-Wakkas] the village of Hur-
muz.
'Abdallah ibn-Salih al-'Ijli from ash-Sha'bi: — 'Uthman
ibn-'Affan assigned as fief to Talhah ibn-'Ubaidallah an-
Nashastaj ;8 and to Usamah ibn-Zaid, a piece of land which
he later sold.
Shaiban ibn-Farrukh from Musa ibn-Talhah: — 'Uth-
man ibn-'Affan gave fiefs to five of the Companions of the
Prophet: 'Abdallah ibn-Mas'ud, Sa'd ibn-Malik az-Zuhri,
az-Zubair ibn-al-' Auwam,4 Khabbab ibn-al-Aratt and Usa-
mah ibn-Zaid.5 Musa ibn-Talhah adds, "I noticed that ibn-
1Athir, vol. ii, p. 407; Adam, pp. 45-46.
1 Yusuf, p. 25, 1. 9: " Istiniya."
1 Yakut, vol. iv, p. 783.
4 Ibn-Sa'd, vol. iii1, pp. 75-77-
* Cf. Ya'kiibi, vol. ii, p. 203, 1. 4.
432 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Mas'ud and Sa'd, who were my neighbors, used to cultivate
their lands for one-third and one-fourth [of the produce]."
Al-Walid ibn-Salih from Musa ibn-Talhah: — The first
• • • •
one to give out al-'Irak in fiefs was 'Uthman ibn-'Affan
who gave out pieces of land appropriated by Kisra, and
others evacuated by their owners. Thus, he assigned to
Talhah as fief an-Nashasta j ; to Wail ibn-Hujr al-Had- 274
rami, the land bordering on Zurarah's ; to Khabbab ibn-al-
Aratt, Asbina; to 'Adi ibn-Hatim at-Ta'i, ar-Rauha', to
Khalid ibn-'Urf Utah, a piece of land near Hammam [bath]
A'yan; to al-Ash'ath ibn-Kais al-Kindi, Tizanabadh; and
to Jarir ibn-'Abdallah al-Bajali, his land on the bank of the
Euphrates.
Ajamat Burs. Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from al-Hasan
ibn-Salih : — The latter said, " I was informed that 'Ali
assessed on the owners of Ajamat [forest] Burs 4,000 dir-
hams; and to that end, he wrote them a statement on a
piece of parchment.1
I was told by Ahmad ibn-Hammad al-Kufi that Ajamat
Burs lies in the vicinity of the Namrudh [Nimrod] palace
in Babil [Babylon]. In this forest, there is a precipice of
great depth, which, according to some, is a well from the
soil of which the bricks of the palace were made, and
which, according to others, is a landslide.
Nahr Sa'd. I learnt from abu-Mas'ud and others that
the landlords [dihkans] of al-Anbir asked Sa'd ibn-abi-
Wakkas to dig for them a canal which they had previously
asked the Persian magnate [king] to dig * for them. Sa'd
wrote to Sa'd ibn-'Amr ibn-Haram, ordering him to dig
the canal for them. Accordingly, they dug until they
reached a mountain which they could not cut through, upon
1 Adam, p. 18.
* Cf. Mas'udi, vol. i, p. 225.
THE BATTLE OF JALOLA' 433
which they gave it up. But when al-Hajjaj became gov-
ernor of al-'Irak, he gathered workmen from all regions,
and said to his superintendents, " Take note of what one of
the diggers eats per day. If it is the weight of what he digs
out, then continue the work." Thus, they spent money1
on it until it was completed. The mountain excavated was
therefore named after al-Hajjaj ; but the canal, after Sa'd
ibn-'Amr ibn-Haram.2
Nahr Mahdud. Al-Khaizuran, the mother of the caliphs,
[umm-al-khulafd'] ordered that the canal known by the
name of Mahdud be dug; and she gave it the name of ar-
Raiyan.8 Her superintendent over the work had divided
it into sections, put limits for every section, and put it in
charge of a group of men to dig; hence the name Mahdud
[i. e., limited].
Nahr Shaila. As for the canal known by the name of
Shaila, it is claimed by the banu-Shaila ibn-Farrukhzadan
al-Marwazi that Sabur [Persian king] had dug it out for
their grandfather when he sent him to guard the frontier
of the dominion at Nighya in the canton of al-Anbar. Ac-
cording to others, however, the canal was so called after 275
one, Shaila, who made a contract for digging the canal in
the days of the caliph al-Mansur; the canal being old but
buried, al-Mansur ordered that it be excavated. Before the
work was brought to an end, al-Mansur died and the work
was completed in the caliphate of al-Mahdi. According to
others, al-Mansur ordered that a mouth [only] be dug for
the canal above its old mouth ; but he did not complete the
work. Al-Mahdi completed it.
1 Cf. Caetani, vol. Hi, p. 864.
* Cf. Mardsid, vol. Hi, p. 24R
• Marfoid, vol. Hi, p. 48: "al-Marban."
CHAPTER VIII
The Founding of al-KOfah
Al-Kuf ah chosen. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from 'Abd-al-
Hamid ibn-Ja'far and others: — TJmar ibn-al-Khattab
wrote to Sa'd ibn-abi-Wakkas ordering him to adopt for
the Moslems a place to which they could emigrate, and
which they could use as a meeting place [kairawdn], pro-
vided that between him ['Umar] and the Moslems, no sea
should intervene. Accordingly, Sa'd came to al-Anbar1
with the idea of occupying it. Here, however, flies were so
numerous, that Sa'd had to move to another place, which
proved to be unsatisfactory, and therefore he moved to al-
Kufah which he divided into lots, giving the houses as
fiefs and settling the different tribes in their quarters. He
also erected its mosque. All this took place in the year 17.
Suk Hakamah. The following was communicated to me
by 'Ali ibn-al-Mughirah-1-Athram, on the authority of
sheikhs from al-Kuf ah : — When Sa'd ibn-abi-Wakkas was
• • •
through with the battle of al-Kadisiyah, he went to al-Ma-
da'in, made terms with the inhabitants of ar-Rumiyah and
Bahurasir, reduced al-Mada'in,2 Asbanbur 2 and Kurdban-
didh 8 and settled his troops in them. The troops occupied
these places. Subsequently, Sa'd was ordered [by 'Umar]
to remove them: and so he removed them to Suk Haka-
mah, others say to Kuwaifah on this side of al-Kuf ah. Ac-
1 Dinawari, p. 131.
1 The Arabic and Persian names of Ctesiphon ; Yakut, vol. i, p. 237.
8 Perhaps a quarter in Ctesiphon ; Caetani, vol. iii, p. 848.
434
THE FOUNDING OF AL-KOFAH 435
cording to al-Athram, the word takauwuf 1 means " the re-
union of people". Others say that circular places when
sandy are called kufah ; and still others call the land rich in
pebbles, mud and sand, kufah.
Mosquitoes in al-Mad<Pin. It is stated that when the
Moslems in al-Mada'in were attacked by the mosquitoes,
Sa'd wrote to 'Umar telling him that they were badly af-
fected by them; in answer to which 'Umar wrote back, 276
" Arabs are like camels ; whatever is good for the camels is
good for them. Choose for them, therefore, a habitable
place; and let no sea intervene between them and me."
The determining of the dwelling-place was entrusted to abu-
1-Haiyaj al-Asadi 'Amr ibn-M&lik ibn-Junadah.
AUKufdh founded. Then 'Abd al-Masih ibn-Bukailah
presented himself before Sa'd and said to him, " I can point
out to thee a site which is outside the waterless desert, and
higher than the muddy places where mosquitoes abound." *
Saying this, he pointed out the site of al-Kufah which was
then called Suristan. When Sa'd arrived on the spot des-
tined to be the site of the mosque, a man shot, by his orders,
an arrow towards the kiblah, another towards the north,
another to the south, a fourth to the east, and marked the
spots where the arrows fell. Sa'd then established the
mosque and, the governor's residence on the spot where the
man who shot the arrows had stood, fencing in all the space
around that spot. He then drew lots with two arrows be-
tween the tribe of Nizar and the tribes of al-Yaman, prom-
ising the left side, which was the better of the two, to the
one whose arrow was drawn first. The people of al-Yaman
had theirs first; and they were, therefore, allotted the pieces
on the east side. The pieces allotted to the Nizar fell on
* From which noun Kufah comes.
* Cf. Tabari, vol. i, p. 23%).
436 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
the west side beyond the boundaries fixed for the mosque,
leaving what was fenced in within the marks for the
mosque and the governor's residence. Later, al-Mughirah
ibn-Shu'bah enlarged the mosque ; and Ziyad x [ibn-Abihi]
rebuilt it strongly and rebuilt the governor's residence.
Ziyad often repeated, " On every one of the pillars of the
mosque at al-Kufah, I spent 1,800 [dirhams]." Another
building was established by 'Amr ibn-Huraith al-Makh-
zumi, whom Ziyad used to leave in his place over al-Ku-
fah whenever he absented himself in al-Basrah. Ziyad's
agents erected many buildings which made the place
crowded and thickly set.2
The lane called Kukak 'Amr in al-Kufah takes its name
* •
from the banu-'Amr ibn-Huraith ibn-'Amr ibn-'UthmSn
ibn-'Abdallah ibn-'Umar ibn-Makhzum ibn-Yakazah.
The Yamanites. Wahb ibn-Bakiyah-1-Wasiti from ash-
Sha'bi : — The latter said, " We (the Yamanites) were
12,000 men; the Nizar were 8,000; from which you can
easily see that we constituted the majority of the settlers 277
of al-Kufah. Our arrow went to the east side of the
mosque. That is why we hold the pieces we now hold."
The mosque. 'Ali ibn-Muhammad al-Mada ini from Mas-
lamah ibn-Muharib and others : — Al-Mughirah enlarged the
mosque * of al-Kufah and rebuilt it. Ziyad later enlarged
it still more. Pebbles were spread in this mosque and in
that of al-Basrah, because when people prayed their hands
were covered with dust, which they used to remove by dap-
ping their hands. This made Ziyad say, "lam afraid that
in course of time, the clapping of hands will be taken for a
part of the religious ceremony." When he, therefore, en-
1 Yikfit, vol iv, pp. 323-324.
• Athir, vol. ii, pp. 410 seq.
* Hamadhini, pp. 173-174-
THE FOUNDING OF AL-KOFAH 437
larged the mosque and added to it, he ordered that pebbles
be strewn in the courtyard of the mosque. The overseers
of the work used to oppress those who gathered the peb-
bles, saying, " Bring us only this kind which we show you",
choosing special samples, and asking for similar ones. By
such means, they enriched themselves. Hence, the saying,
"It is good to be in authority even over stones." 1 This say-
ing, however, is, according to al-Athram, explained by abu-
'Ubaidah by the fact that al-Hajj4j ibn-'Atik ath-Thakafi,
or his son, had charge of cutting the pillars for the al-Bas-
rah mosque from Jabal al-Ahwaz where he discovered a
mine. This gave rise to the expression : " It is good to be
in authority even over stones."
Abu-'Ubaidah states that the colonization of al-Kufah
took place in the year 18.
Ziyad took for himself in the al-Kufah mosque a maksu-
rah which afterwards was renewed by Khalid ibn-'Abdallah
al-Kasri.
The version of al-Haithant. Hafs ibn-'Umar al-'Umari
from al-Haitham ibn-'Adi at-Ta'i: — After having settled
in al-Mada'in, planned it out and established a mosque, the
Moslems found the place too dirty and productive of pesti-
lence. Sa'd ibn-abi-Wakkas communicated the fact to
• • •
'Umar who wrote back that they should move westward.
Sa'd came to Kuwaifah ibn-'Umar, but finding the water
all around it, the Moslems left it and came to the site on
which al-Kufah now stands. They hit on the ridge called
Khadd al-'AdhrU' [the virgin's cheek] on which lavender,
daisies, broom-plants [shih and kaisum] and poppies grew.
On this site, they established themselves.
I was told by a Kufite sheikh that the region between
al-Kufah and al-Hirah was known by the name of al- 278
Miltat.
1 Frcytag, vol. ii, p. 917* n. 47.
438 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
The house of 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-'Umair was used for
entertaining guests, 'Umar having ordered that some house
be put to that use for those who came from the different
provinces.
Charges against Saed. A1-' Abbas ibn-Hisham al-Kalbi
from Muhammad ibn-Ishak: — Sa'd ibn-abi-Wakkas made
• • • ■ • • •
a wooden door for his mansion which he surrounded with
a fence of reeds. 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab sent Muhammad
ibn-Maslamah-1-Ansari who set fire to the door and fence,
and made Sa'd leader in the mosques of al-Kufah where
nothing but good was spoken of him.
A1-' Abbas ibn-al-Walid an-Narsi and Ibrahim al-'Allaf
al-Basri from J&bir ibn-Samurah : — The people of al-Kufah
reported Sa'd ibn-abi-Wakk&s to 'Umar on the ground
that he did not lead properly in prayers. In answer to the
charge, Sa'd said, " As for me, I have always followed the
prayer of the Prophet and never deviated from it. In the
first two [prostrations] I repeat prayer slowly, in the last
two, quickly." x "That was what was thought of thee, abu-
Ish&k," said 'Umar. 'Umar then sent certain men to in-
quire in al-Kufah regarding Sa'd, about whom nothing but
good was told in the different mosques, until they came to
the mosque of the banu-'Abs. Here someone called abu-
Sa'dah said, "As for Sa'd, he does not divide shares
equally, nor judge cases justly." Hearing this, Sa'd ex-
claimed, " O God, if he is telling a lie, make his age long,
perpetuate his poverty, take away his eyesight and expose
him to troubles ! " 'Abd-al-Malik said, " I later saw abu-
Sa'dah intercepting the way of the maids in the streets;
and when somebody asked him, ' How are you, abu-Sa'-
dah ? ' he always replied, ' I am old and crazed, being af-
flicted with the curse of Sa'd \"
1 Bukhari, vol. i, p. 195 ; Zamakhshari, Fffty, vol. i, p. 212.
THE FOUNDING OF AL-KOFAH 439
In another tradition transmitted by al-' Abbas an-Narsi,
Sa'd made the following petition, regarding the people of
al-Kufah : " O God, let no ruler be satisfied with them, and
let them be never satisfied with a ruler ! "
I was informed by al-' Abbas an-Narsi that al-Mukhtar
ibn-abi-'Ubaid, or someone else, said, " To love the people
of al-Kufah is honor; and to hate them is destruction."
Al-Hasan ibn-'Uthman az-Ziyadi from ash-Sha'bi: —
After the victory of al-Kadisiyah, 'Amr ibn-Ma'dikarib 279
visited 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab and was asked by him about
Sa'd and whether the people were satisfied with him. 'Amr
gave the following answer, " I left him laying up for them
as an ant lays up, having as much sympathy with them as
a kind mother. In his love of dates, he is an Arab ; in the
collection of taxes, he is Nabatean. He divides shares
equitably, judges cases justly and leads the bands success-
fully." " It looks," said 'Umar, "as if ye both have agreed
to compensate each other with praise (Sa'd having before
written to 'Umar in commendation of 'Amr)." "No,
' Commander of the Believers '," answered 'Amr, " I rather
said what I knew." " Well, 'Amr," said 'Umar, " describe
war." " It is bitter in taste when waged. He, who perse-
veres in it, becomes known; but he who grows weak, per-
ishes."— " Describe the arms." — " Ask me about which-
ever thou wantest." — "The lancet?" — "It is a brother
which may betray thee." — " The arrows? " — " Arrows are
messengers of death which either err or hit." — " The
shield?" — "That is the defense which has most to suffer."
— " The coat of mail ?" — " Something that keeps the horse-
man busy; a nuisance for the footman; but in all cases, a
strong protection." — " The sword ?" — " May it be the cause
of thy death !"— " Thy death !"— " The fever has abased
me to thee." x
1 A proverb applied to the case of abasement on the occasion of need.
Lane's " Dictionary " s. v. odra'a.
440 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
'Umar appoints 'Ammar and then al-Mughirah. At last,
'Ulnar dismissed Sa'd and appointed 'Ammar ibn-Yasir. A
complaint was made against 'Ammar to the effect that he
was weak and knew nothing about politics. He was there-
fore dismissed after holding the office of governor over al-
Kufah for one year and nine months. In this connection,
'Umar remarked, " What am I to do with the people of al-
Kufah? If I appoint a strong man over them, they at-
tribute transgression to him; and if a weak man, they de-
spise him." x Calling al-Mughirah ibn-Shu'bah, he asked
him, " Wouldst thou commit again what thou didst once
commit, if I should assign thee over al-Kufah? " And al-
Mughirah answered, " No." Al-Mughirah went to al-
Madinah, after the conquest of al-Kadisiyah, and was ap-
pointed by 'Umar over al-Kufah, which position he held
until 'Umar's death.
Sa'd, then al-Walid, then Sa'id as governors. Then came
'Uthman ibn-'Affan and appointed over al-Kufah Sa'd;
but later dismissed him and appointed al-Walid ibn-'Ukbah
ibn-abi-Mu'ait ibn-abi-'Amr ibn-Umaiyah. When al-Walid
visited Sa'd, the latter said, " Either thou hast become in-
telligent after me, or I have become foolish after thee." Al-
Walid was later dismissed and Sa'id ibn-al-Asi ibn-Sa'id 280
ibn-al-Asi ibn-Umaiyah was nominated to his place.
Persians unite with the Arabs. Abu-Mas'ud al-Kufi
from Mis'ar ibn-Kidam: — In the battle of al-Kadisiyah,
Rustam led 4,000 men called Jund [army] Shahanshah,
who asked for peace provided they be allowed to settle
wherever they wanted, be confederates with whomever they
wanted and receive soldiers' stipends. Their request hav-
ing been granted, they united in a confederacy with Zuhrah
1'Ikdt vol. iii, p. 360; Hamadhini, p. 184; Kazwini, Athdr al-BUod,
p. 167.
THE FOUNDING OF AL-KOFAH
441
ibn-Hawiyah as-Sa'di of the banu-Tamim. Sa'd [ibn-abi-
Wakkas] allowed them to settle where they chose, and as-
signed 1,000,000 dirhams for stipends. Their chief [no-
kib] was one of them called Dailam ; x hence the name of
the place Hamra' Dailam. Later Ziyad [ibn-Abihi], fol-
lowing the orders of Mu'awiyah, sent some of them to
Syria where they are called al-Furs [Persians], others to
al-Basrah where they were combined with the Asawirah
[Persian cavalry].
According to abu-Mas'ud, the Arabs call the non-Arabs
Hamra' [the red], and would say, " I came from Hamra'
Dailam," as they would say, " I came from Juhainah " or
some other place. Abu-Mas'ud adds, " I heard someone
say that these Asawirah lived near ad-Dailam and when
they were attacked by the Moslems in Kazwin, they ac-
cepted Islam on the same terms as the Asawirah of al-Bas-
rah. Then they came to al-Kufah and settled in it."
According to al-Mada'ini, Abarwiz brought from ad-
Dailam 4,000 men who acted as his servants and escort,
which position they held until the Arab invasion. They
then took part in the battle of al-Kadisiyah under Rus-
tam. When Rustam was killed and the Magians were de-
feated, they withdrew, saying, " We are different from
those others [i. e., Arabs] ; we have no refuge, and have al-
ready left a bad impression on the Moslems. Let us then
adopt their faith, and we will be strengthened by them."
Having deserted to the Moslem camp, Sa'd wanted to know
the cause; and al-Mughirah ibn-Shu'bah asked them about
it. Thus, they presented their case, saying, "We will adopt
your faith." Al-Mughirah came back to Sa'd and told
him about it. Sa'd promised them security; and they ac-
cepted Islam. They witnessed the conquest of al-Ma-
1 " Dilam " in Persian.
442 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
da in under Sa'd and the conquest of Jalula ; after which
they returned to al-Kufah where they settled with the
Moslems.
Places of interest and the persons after whom they are
named.1 The Jabbanat [cemetery] as-Sabi', after a son of
as-Sabi* ibn-Sabu' ibn-Sa'b al-Hamdani.
The Sahra [desert] Uthair,2 after Uthair of the banu- 28r
Asad.
The Dukkan [shop] 'Abd-al-Hamid, after 'Abd-al-Ha-
mid ibn-'Abd-ar-Rahman ibn-Zaid ibn-al-Khattab, the
'amil of 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz over al-Kufah.
The Sahra bani-Kirar after the banu-Kirar ibn-Tha'-
labah. . . . ibn-Nizar.
Dar ar-Rumiyin was a dunghill where the inhabitants of
al-Kufah cast their rubbish and which was taken as fief
from Yazid ibn-'Abd-al-Malik by 'Anbasah ibn-Sa'id ibn-
al-Asi, who removed the soil in it for 1 50,000 dirhams.
The Suk [market] Yusuf in al-Hirah, after Yusuf ibn-
'Umar . . . ath-Thakafi.
Hammam [bath] A'yan, after A'yan, a freedman of Sa'd
ibn-abi-Wakkas.
• • •
Bi'at [church] bani-Mazin in al-Hirah, after some of al-
Azd of Ghassan.
Hammam 'Umar, after 'Umar ibn-Sa'd ibn-abi-Wakkas.
Shaharsuj Bajilah in al-Kufah, after the banu-Bajlah.*
Jabbanat 'Arzam, after a certain 'Arzam, who used to 282
shake in it milk in a skin [so that its butter might come
forth] .
Jabb&nat Bishr, after Bishr ibn-Rabi'ah . . . ibn-Ku-
mair al-Khuth'ami.
Zurarah, after Zurarah ibn- Yazid . . . ibn-'Sa'sa'ah.
1 The following list is a shortened form of the original.
*Dhahabi, pp. 5-6.
1 Yakut, vol. iii, p. 336; Hamadhani, p. 182; Marasid, vol ii, p. 135-
THE FOUNDING OF AL-KOFAH 443
Dar [house] Hukaim in al-Kufah, after Hukaim ibn-
Sa'd ibn-Thaur al-Buka'i.
Kasr [castle] Mukatil, after Mukatil ibn-Hassan l . . .
of the banu-Amru'i-1-Kais.
As-Sawadiyah 2 in al-Kufah, after Sawad ibn-Zaid ibn- 283
*Adi. . . .
Karyat [village] abi-Salabah on the Euphrates, after
Salabah ibn-Malik ibn-Tarik. . . .
Aks&s Malik, after Malik ibn-Kais . . . ibn-Nizar.
Dair [monastery] al-A'war, after one of the Iyad of the
banu-Umaiyah.
Dair Kurrah after Kurrah of the banu-Umaiyah ibn-
Hudhafah.
Dair as-Sawa, after the same banu-Umaiyah.
Dair al-Jamajim, after the Iyad tribe who in a battle with
the banu-Bahra' and the banu-1-Kain lost many who were
buried there and whose skulls [jamdjim] were later ex-
cavated as one was digging in the ground.
Dair Ka'b, after the Iyad.
Dair Hind, after the mother of 'Amr ibn-Hind.
Dar Kumam, after the daughter of al-Harith ibn-Ha- 284
ni' al-Kindi.
Bi'at bani-cAdi, after the banu-'Adi ibn-adh-Dhumail
of the Lakhm.
Tizanabadh, after ad-Daizan ibn-Mu'awiyah ibn-al-'Abid
as-Salihi.
Masjid [mosque] Simak in al-Kufah, after Simak ibn-
Makhramah ibn-Humain al-Asadi. . . .
Mahallat [quarter] bani-Shaitin, after Shaitan ibn-Zu-
hair8 . . . ibn-Tamim.
1 K&m&s, vol. iv, p. 36, 1. 22 : " JJaiyan."
* " Sauwariyah n in Hamadhini, p. 182; cf. Taj al-Ar&st vol. ii, p.
390; Yakut, vol. iii, p. 180.
•"Zubair" in Yakut, vol. iii, p. 356, 1. 12; cf. Uajar, vol. i, p. S^S-
444 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
The site of Dar 'Isa ibn-Musa belonged to al-'Ala' ibn-
'Abd-ar-Rahman . . . ibn-'Abd-Manaf. 28;
There is a path in al-Kufah named after 'Amirah ibn-
Shihab. . . .
Sahra' Shabath, after Shabath ibn-Rib'i ar-Riyahi of the
banu-Tamim.
Dar Hujair in al-Kufah, after Hujair ibn-al-Ja'd al-Ju-
mahi.
Bi'r [well] al-Mubarik [Mubarak ?], after al-Mubarik
[Mubarak ?] ibn-'Ikrimah ibn-Humairi [Himyari ?]-l-Ju'fL
Raha [hand-mill] 'Umarah, after 'Umarah ibn-'Ukbah
. . . ibn-Umaiyah.
Jabbanat Salim, after Salim ibn-'Ammar . . . ibn-Ha-
wazin.
Sahra' Albardakht, after the poet Albardakht ad-Dabbi.
Masjid bani-'Anz, after the banu-'Anz ibn-Wa'il ibn-
Kdsit.
Masjid bani-Jadhimah, after the banu-Jadhimah ibn-Ma-
lik ibn-Nasr . . . ibn-Asad.
There is a mosque in al-Kufah named after the banu-1-
Makasif.
Masjid bani-Bahdalah, after the banu-Bahdalah ibn-al-
Mithl ibn-Mu'awiyah of the Kindah.
Bi'r al-Ja'd in al-Kufah, after al-Ja'd, a freedman of
Hamdan. 286
Dar abi-Artat, after Artat ibn-Malik al-Bajali.
Dar al-Mukatta', after al-Mukatta' ibn-Sunain al-Kalbi.
• • • ' • • •
Kasr al-'Adasiyin at the extremity of al-Hirah, after the
banu-'Ammar ibn-'Abd-al-Masih. . . .
The cathedral mosque in al-Kufah was built with ma-
terial taken from the ruins of the castles in al-Hirah that
belonged to the al-Mundhir clan, the price of that material
constituting a part of the tax paid by the people of al-Hirah.
Sikkat al-Barid [post-office] in al-Kufah was once a
THE FOUNDING OF AL-KOFAH 445
church built by Khalid ibn-'Abdallah ... of the Bajilah
for his mother, who was a Christian.
Khalid built shops, dug the canal called al-Jami', and
erected the Kasr Khalid.
Suk Asad, after Asad ibn-'Abdallah, Khalid's brother.
Kantarat [arch] al-Kufah was built by 'Umar ibn-Hu-
bairah, and later repaired by Kh&lid and others.
Al-Hdshimiydh. The following tradition was trans- 287
mitted to me by abu-Mas'ud and others : — Yazid ibn-'Umar
ibn-Hubairah laid out a city in al-Kufah on the Euphrates
and occupied it before it was fully completed. He then re-
ceived a letter from Marwan, ordering him to avoid the
neighborhood of the people of al-Kufah ; and he, therefore,
left it and built the castle known by the name of Kasr ibn-
Hubairah near the Sura bridge.
When caliph abu-l-'Abb&s came to power, he occupied
this city, completed the erection of certain mansions \mak-
siirahs] defended by walls in it, established new buildings
and called it al-Hashimiyah. People in general called it by
its old name after ibn-Hubairah; and abu-1-' Abbas making
the remark, " I see that the name of ibn-Hubairah will
always cling to it ", gave it up and established on a site
opposite to it another city by the name of al-Hashimiyah.
After residing there for some time, he decided to settle in
al-Anbar, where he built his well-known city x in which he
was buried.
Madinat as-Saldm. When abu-Ja'far al-Mansur became
caliph, he occupied the city of al-Hashimiyah in al-Kufah
after completing its erection, enlarging it and preparing it
according to his own idea. Later, he abandoned it in favor
of Baghd&dh, where he built his city. He founded Bagh-
dadh and called it Madinat as-Salam,2 and repaired its old
1 Le Strange, Baghdad, pp. 5-6. ''
1 " The city of peace." Le Strange, p. 10.
446 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
wall which begins at the Tigris and ends at as-Sar&t
[canal].
It was in this al-Hashimiyah that al-Mansur imprisoned
'Abdallah ibn-Hasan ibn-Hasan ibn-'Ali ibn-abi-Talib be-
cause of his two sons Muhammad and Ibrahim ; and it was
here that he was buried.
Ar-Ruf&fah. Al-Mansur built in al-Kufah ar-Rusafah
[causeway] and by his orders, his freedman abu-1-Khasib
Marzuk built for him on an old foundation the castle that
bears his name : abu-1-Khasib. Others say that abu-1-Kha-
sib built the castle for himself ; and al-Mansur used to visit
him in it.
Al-Khawarnak. As for al-Khawarnak, it was an old
Persian castle built by an-Nu'm&n ibn-Amru'i-1-Kais
(whose mother was ash-Shakikah, daughter of abu-Rabi'ah
ibn-Dhuhl ibn-Shaiban) for Bahram Jur ibn-Yazdajird ibn-
Bahram ibn-Sabur dhu-1-Aktaf , who was brought up in the
home of an-Nu'man.1 It was this same an-Nu'man who
left his kingdom and traveled around, as mentioned by
'Adi ibn-Zaid al-'Ib&di in his poem. When the "blessed
dynasty" appeared, al-Khawarnak was given as fief to Ibra-
him ibn-Salamah, one of their propagandists in Khurasan
and a grandfather of 'Abd-ar-Rahmin ibn-Ishak al- 288
Kadi. During the caliphate of al-Ma'mun and al-Mu'tasimf
Ibrahim lived in Madinat as-Salam and was a freedman of
ar-Ribab. In the caliphate of abu-1-* Abbas, he erected the
dome of al-Khawarnak which did not exist before.
Bab al-FiL Abu-Mas'ud al-Kufi from certain sheikhs
of al-Kufah: — When the Moslems conquered al-Mada'in,
they captured an elephant ; all the other elephants they came
across before having been killed by them. They wrote to
1 Tha'alibi, Mulfik ol-Furs, pp. 530-540 (ed. Zotenbcrg) ; Hamadhani,
pp. I7&-I79.
THE FOUNDING OF AL-KOFAH 447
'Umar about it and he told them to sell it if possible. The
elephant was bought by a man from al-Hirah who used to
cover its back with a cloak and go round the villages ex-
hibiting it. Sometime after that, umm-Aiyub, daughter of
'Umarah ibn-'Ukbah ibn-abi-Mu'ait (who was the wife of
al-Mughirah ibn-Shu'bah and later of Ziyad) wanted to see
the elephant as she was in her father's home. The elephant
was brought before her and stood at the door of the mosque
which is now termed Bab al-Fil. After looking at it, she
gave its owner something and dismissed him. But no sooner
had the elephant taken a few strides, than it fell dead. That
is why the door was called Bib al-Fil.1 Some say that the
one who looked at it was the wife of al-Walid ibn-'Ukbah
ibn-abi-Mu'ait ; others that it was a sorcerer who made the
people see an elephant appearing from the door riding on
a donkey; still others that the trough of the mosque was
brought on an elephant and passed through this door, which
was for that reason called B&b al-Fil. These explanations
are false. There are those who claim that the trough of the
mosque was carried on an elephant and brought in through
this door. Others think that an elephant owned by one of
the governors once rushed against this door which was later
called after it. The first explanation, however, is the most
authentic.
Jabbdnat Maimun. According to abu-Mas'ud, the Mai-
mun cemetery at al-Kufah was named after Maimun, a
freedman of Muhammad ibn-'Ali ibn-'Abdallah, surnamed
abu-Bishr, who built at-Takat * in Baghdadh near Bib ash-
Sham.8
1 " The elephant door " ; cf. Tabari, vol. ii, p. 27.
* Archways or arcades. Cf. Le Strange, Baghdad, p. 130.
•"The Syrian gate", Le Strange, pp. 17-18; Hamadhani, p. 184;
YaTriibi, pp. 240-242.
448 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Sahra' umm-Salamah. The umm-Salamah desert was so
called after umm-Salamah, daughter of Ya'kub ibn-Sala-
mah . . . ibn-Makhzum and the wife of abu-1-' Abbas. 289
Al-Kufah moat. I was told by abu-Mas'ud that al-Man-
sur held the people of al-Kufah responsible for its moat and
that he imposed on every one of them forty dirhams to
meet its expenses, he being displeased with them on account
of their tendencies toward the Talibite party and their
spreading false news regarding the sultan [the chief au-
thority].
The inhabitants of al-Kufah commended. Al-Husain
ibn-al-Aswad from 'Amir : — 'Umar writing to the people of
al-Kufah called them " the head of the Arabs."
Al-Husain from Nafi' ibn-Jubair ibn-Mut'im: — 'Umar
said, " In al-Kufah are the most distinguished men."
Al-Husain and Ibrahim ibn-Muslim al-Khawarizmi from
ash-Sha'bi : — 'Umar in addressing the people of al-Kufah
wrote, " To the head of Isl&m."
Al-Husain ibn-al-Aswad from Shamir ibn-'Atiyah: —
'Umar said regarding the people of al-Kufah, " They are
the lance of Allah, the treasure of the faith, the cranium of
the Arabs, who protect their own frontier forts and rein-
force other Arabs."
Abu-Nasr at-Tammar from Salman: — The latter said:
— " Al-Kufah is the dome of Isl&m. There will be a time
in which every believer will either be in it or will have his
heart set upon it."
CHAPTER IX
WAsit al-'Irak
The first cathedral mosques. 'Abd-al-Hamid ibn-Wasi'
al-Khatli-1-Hasib from al-Hasan ibn-Salih: — The first
• • •
cathedral mosque1 built in as-Sawad was that of al-Ma-
da'in built by Sa'd and his companions. It was later made
larger and stronger under the supervision of Hudhaifah
ibn-al-Yaman who died at al-Mada'in in the year 36.
After that, Sa'd established the mosque of al-Kufah and 290
that of al-Anbar.
Wdsit built by al-Hajjaj. The city of Wasit was built
in the year 83 or 84 by al-Hajjaj who also built its mosque,
castle and Kubbat al-Khadr&\* The site of Wasit having
been covered with reeds [kasab], the city acquired the name
of Wasit al-Kasab. This city is equidistant from al-
Ahwaz, al-Basrah and al-Kufah. Ibn-al-Kirriyah remarks,
" He [al-Hajjaj] has built it but not in his town, and shall
leave it but not for his son."
One of the sheikhs of Wasit from other sheikhs : — When
al-Hajjaj completed the erection of Wasit, he wrote to
'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan, " I have built a city in a hol-
low of the ground [kirsh] between al-Jabal and al-Misrain,
and called it Wasit [lying halfway between]." That is why
the people of Wasit were called the Kirshiyun.8 Before he
1Masjid jam? = the chief mosque of the city in which people as-
semble on Friday for prayer and the khufbah.
*t. e.t "the green dome." It was later occupied by al-Mansur and
called Bab adh-Dhahab. Le Strange, 31 seq.; Yakut, vol. i, p. 683;
YaTcubi, Buldon, p. 240, and Tcfrikh, vol. ii, p. 450 ; Tabari, vol. iii, p.
326.
• ray al-'ArAs, s. v. kirsh.
449
4So THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
erected Wasit, al-Hajjaj had the idea of taking up his
abode in as-Sin of Kaskar. He, therefore, dug Nahr
[canal] as^Sin and ordered that the workmen be chained to-
gether so that none of them might run away as a deserter.
After that it occurred to him to establish Wasit * which he
later occupied, then he dug out an-Nil 2 and az-Zabi canals.
The latter was so called because it branched off from the
old Zabi. He thus reclaimed the land around these two
canals and erected the city called an-Nil 8 and populated it.
He then turned his attention to certain crown-domains
which 'Abdallah ibn-Darraj, a freedman of Mu'awiyah ibn-
abi-Sufyin, had reclaimed (when with al-Mughirah ibn-
Shu'bah he had charge of the khardj of al-Kufah) for Mu-
'awiyah. These domains included waste lands, swamps,
ditches and thickets. Al-Hajjaj built dams4 in these do-
mains ; uprooted the reeds in them and added them to the
domains of 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan after populating
them.
To his castle and the cathedral mosque in Wasit, al-
Hajjaj brought doors from Zandaward,5 ad-Daukarah, Da-
rusat, Dair Masirjasan6 and Sharabit, whose people pro-
tested, saying, " We have been guaranteed the security of
our cities and possessions;" but he did not mind what they
said.
Al-Mubarak, Al-Mubarak T canal was dug by Khalid
ibn-'Abdallah-l-Kasri al-Mubarak and commemorated by
al-Farazdak in certain verses.
1 Kazwini, pp. 320-321 ; IJaukal, pp. 162-163.
1 Ya'kubi, Buldan, p. 322.
• Tanbih, p. 52.
4 musannaydt; Taj al-'Arus, s. v. saniyo; Mawardi, p. 311.
• Tabari, vol. iii, p. 321.
• Marasid, vol. i, p. 439-
1 Tabari, vol. iii, pp. 1981, 1985.
WASIT AL-'IRAK 4g!
Khalid's bridge. Muhammad ibn-Khalid ibn-'Abdallah 291
at-Tahhan from his sheikhs: — Kh&lid ibn-'Abdallah al-
• • • •
Kasri wrote to Hisham ibn-'Abd-al-Malik asking for per-
mission to make an arch over the Tigris. Hisham wrote
back, " If this were possible, the Persians would have done
it." Khalid wrote again; and Hish&m answered : " If thou
art sure that it is feasible, thou mayst do it." Khalid built
the arch at a great expense; but it was soon destroyed by
the water. Hisham made Khalid pay the expenses out of
his own pocket.
Al-Bazz&k. The canal known by the name of al-Baz-
zak was an old one of which the Nabatean form is al-Bas-
sak, which means that which cuts the water off from what
comes after it and takes it over to itself. In this canal the
superfluous water from as-Sib jungles and some water of
the Euphrates gather. This name was corrupted into al-
Bazzak.
Al-Moimun. As for al-Maimun x it was first dug out by
Said ibn-Zaid, an agent of umm-Ja'far Zubaidah, daughter
of Ja'far ibn-al-Mansur. The mouth of al-Maimun was
near a village called Maimun. In the time of al-W&thik-
Billah, the position of the mouth was shifted by 'Umar ibn-
Faraj ar-Rukhkhaji, but the river kept its old name al-Mai-
mun [the auspicious], lest the idea of auspiciousness be dis-
sociated from it.
I was informed by Muhammad ibn-Kh&lid that by the
order of caliph al-Mahdi, Nahr as-Silah was dug out and
the lands around it were entrusted to farmers. The income
thereof was used as stipends to the inhabitants of the sacred
territories of Makkah and al-Madinah [ahl al-Haramain]
and for other expenses there. It was stipulated on the ten-
ants who came to those lands that they should yield two-
1 Tabari, vol. iii, p. 1760 : M Nahr Maimun."
452 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
fifths [ ?] of the produce, with the understanding that after
holding their share for fifty years, they should yield as tax
one-half of its produce. This stipulation is still in force.1
Al-Atnir. As regards Nahr al-Amir, it was ascribed to 292
'Isa ibn-'Ali and lay in his fief.
Mashra'at al-Fil. We were informed by Muhammad ibn-
Khilid that Muhammad ibn-al-Kasim presented to al-Haj-
jaj an elephant from as-Sind* which was transported
through al-Bata'ih [the great swamp] on a ship and was
landed at a watering place, which has since been called
Mashra'at al-Fil or Furdat 8 al-Fil.
1 Cf. Kudamah, pp. 241-242.
1 A country bordering upon India, Karman and Sijistan; Meynard,
P. 324.
* mashra'at = wharf ; furdat = harbor.
CHAPTER X
Al-Bata'ih
Al-Aur#. I was informed by certain learned men that
the Persians often discussed the future fall of their king-
dom and thought that earthquakes and floods would be the
sign thereof. Now, the Tigris emptied its water into Dijlat
al-Basrah, also called al-'Aura',1 by means of branching
streams which drew their water from the main stream
which carried the rest of the water and looked like one of
those streams.
The formation of al-Bataih. In the days of Kubadh ibn-
Fairiiz,2 the water at the lower part of Kaskar broke
through a great breach which was neglected until its waters
drowned large, flourishing tracts of land. Kubadh was a
feeble man and cared little for the breach. But when his
son Anushirwan came to rule, he ordered that dams be made
and thus the water was stopped and some of the lands flour-
ished again.
When the year came in which the Prophet sent ' Abdallah
ibn-Hudhafah as-Sahmi to Kisra Abarwiz, which was the
year 7 A. H. (others say 6) , the waters of the Tigris and the
Euphrates rose to a height never reached before or since,
causing many great breaches. Abarwiz made special effort
to stop the breaches ; but the water had the better of him,
1 The united course of the Tigris and Euphrates before they empty
into the Persian Gulf. Yakut, vol. ii, p. 745.
1 Tha'alibi, pp. 586-603.
453
454 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
turned towards al-Bata'ih x and overflowed the buildings
and plants, drowning many cantons that were there.
Kisra * rode out in person to block the breaches ; he scat-
tered money right and left, put many workmen to death
and, according to a report, crucified on certain breaches
forty dam builders in one day; but all that was of no avail
against the force of water.*
With the advent of the Arabs into al-'Irak, the Persians 293
were kept too busy fighting to mind the breaches which
would burst and no one would mind them; and the feudal
lords [dihkdns] failed to block them. Consequently, al-
Batihah was made wider and more extensive.*
'Abdalldh ibn-Darrdj. When Mu'awiyah ibn-abi-Sufyan
became ruler, he appointed 'Abdallah ibn-Darr&j, his f reed-
man, over the khardj of al-'Irak. 'Abdallah, by cutting
down the reeds and stopping the water by dams, reclaimed
for his master lands in al-Bata'ih, the income of which
amounted to 5,000,000 [dirhams].
Hassdn an-Nabati. Then came Hassan an-Nabati, the
freedman of the banu-Dabbah, the builder of Haud [reser-
voir] Hassan in al-Basrah and the one after whom Mana-
rat [light-house] Hassan in al-Bata'ih is named. Hassan
reclaimed certain lands in al-Bata'ih for al-Hajjaj in the
days of al-Walid and for Hisham ibn-'Abd-al-Malik."
Al-Janb canal. Before al-Bata'ih was formed, there was
at Kaskar a canal called al-Janb, along the south bank of
which ran the post-road to Maisan, Dastumaisan and al-
Ahwaz. When al-Bata'ih was formed, that part of the
1 The great swamp in which water overflowing from the Tigris and
Euphrates disappeared. Rustah, p. 04.
* Anushirwan ; Tha'alibi, p. 603.
• Mas'udi, vol. i, p. 225.
4 Kudimah, p. 24a
» Cf. Kudamah, p. 24a
AL-BATA'IQ 455
post-road which became a thicket was called Ajam al-
Barid; and the other part was called Ajam Aghmarbathi x
in which the great thickets lie. The canal is now seen in
the al- J amid ah [solid] lands that have recently been re-
claimed and rendered fit for use.
The version of abu-Mas'ud. Abu-Mas'ud al-Kufi from
his sheikhs : — Al-Bata'ih was formed after the " flight "
of the Prophet and during the reign of Abarwiz over the
Persians. Many great fissures were formed which Kisra
was unable to block, thus making the rivers overflow and
producing al-Bata'ih. At the time of the Moslem wars with
the Persians, the water overflowed and no one took the
trouble to block the fissures. This enlarged the Batihah
and made it wider. The banu-Umaiyah had reclaimed a
part of the Batihah, which part was again sunk in the time
of al-Hajjaj when new breaches appeared which al-Hajjaj
did not care to block, trying thereby to injure the Persian
feudal lords whom he suspected to be on the side of ibn-al-
Ash'ath who had broken off his allegiance to al-Hajjaj.
Hassan an-Nabati reclaimed for Hisham certain tracts of
•
the Batihah land.
Abu-l-Asad. Abu-1-Asad, from whom Nahr abu-1-Asad
takes its name, was one of the generals of the caliph al-
Mansur, and one of those sent to al-Basrah when 'Adballah 294
ibn-'Ali resided in it. It was this abu-1-Asad who made
'Abdaliah ibn-'Ali enter al-Kufah.
I was told by 'Umar ibn-Bukair that al-Mansur dis-
patched his freedman abu-1-Asad, who pitched his camp
between al-Mansur and the army of 'Isa ibn-Musa as al-
Mansur was fighting against Ibrahim ibn-' Abdaliah ibn-al-
Hasan ibn-al-Hasan ibn-'Ali ibn-abi-Talib. The same abu-
1-Asad dug the canal near al-Batihah which bears his name.
1 "A Nabatean word which means the great thickets ;M Kudamah, p.
241.
456 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Others say that abu-1-Asad, reaching the mouth of the
canal and finding it too narrow for the ships, widened it;
and, therefore, it was named after him.
It is stated by abu-Mas'ud that in the time of the "blessed
dynasty" certain breaches were formed which made al-
Bata'ih larger. Because of the water of the Euphrates,
many thickets grew, of which some were reclaimed and
made tillable land.
Maslamah reclaims new lands, Abu-Mas'ud from 'Awa-
nah : — In the days of al-Haj jaj, new breaches were made.
Al-Haj jaj wrote to al-Walid ibn-'Abd-al-Malik stating that
he estimated that 3,000,000 dirhams would be required for
blocking them. Al-Walid thought that too much. Masla-
mah ibn-'Abd-al-Malik said to al-Walid, "I offer to pay the
expenses provided thou givest me as fief the depressed tracts
in which the water remains, after spending 3,000,000 dir-
hams, which sum shall be spent under the direct supervision
of thy counsellor and trusted man, al-Haj jaj." Al-Walid
accepted the offer. Maslamah gained possession of lands
that had many cantons close together. He dug as-Sibain l
and induced the farmers and tenants to come and hold land.
Thus the land flourished ; and in order to secure his protec-
tion, many landowners voluntarily turned their farms over
to him, and then held them from him as fief. When the
" blessed dynasty " came and the possessions of the banu-
Umaiyah were confiscated, all as-Sibain was assigned as
fief to Da'ud ibn-'Ali ibn-'Abdallah ibn-al-'Abbis, from
whose heirs it was bought with its rights and boundaries
and was included in the crown-domains [diydf al-khilafah].
1 The dual form of as-Sib.
CHAPTER XI
Madinat as-Salam
Built by al-Matufiir. Baghd&dh1 was an ancient city,
but al-Mansur colonized it, and added a city to it 2 which 295
he began in the year 145. Hearing that Muhammad and
Ibrahim, the sons of 'Abdallah ibn-Hasan ibn-Hasan, had
thrown off their allegiance to him, al-Mansur returned to
al-Kufah. In the year 146, he transferred the public
treasures [buyut al-mdl], repositories, and registers from
al-Kufah to Baghdadh, and called it Madinat as-Salam [the
city of peace]. In the year 147, the wall of this city, with
everything else connected with it, and the wall of ancient
Baghdadh were completed. Al-Mansur died in Makkah
in the year 158 and was buried near the well of Maimiin
ibn-al-Hadrami, an ally of the banu-Umaiyah.
Ar-Rusafah. Ar-Rusafah 8 was built for al-Mahdi by
al-Mansur on the east side of Baghdadh. This side was
called 'Askar [camp] al-Mahdi 4 because al-Mahdi camped
in it on his way to ar-Rai. When he returned from ar-Rai,
he settled in ar-Rusafah, although it had occurred to al-
Mansur to direct him to settle in Khurasan. This took
place in the year 151. Before al-Mahdi had occupied the
1 A Persian word meaning the city " founded by God," see Le
Strange, Baghdad, pp. 10-11.
* IJaukal, p. 164.
8 i. e.t causeway, the eastern suburb of Baghdad. Istakhri, pp. 83, 84;
Tanbih, p. 360.
4 Ya'kubi, Buldtn, p. 251.
457
4S8 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
east side, a palace was built for him by al-Mansur's order ;
the one variously known as Kasr al-Waddah, Kasr al-
Mahdi and ash-Sharkiyah.1 It lay on the other side of Bab
al-Karkh. Al-Waddah, after whom it is sometimes called,
was a man from al-Anbar who had charge of the expenses.
AUMansur as a builder. Al-Mansur built the two mos-
ques of Madinat as-Salam and the new bridge over as-
Sarat [canal]. The site of the city he bought from the
owners of the villages of Baduraiya, Katrabbul [or Kut-
rubbul], Nahr Buk and Nahr Bin. He gave the city as
fief to members of his household, his generals, soldiers,
companions and secretaries. He made the meeting place of
the streets at al-Karkh, and ordered the merchants to build
their shops and held them responsible for the rent.2
Places of interest in Baghdad.* The al-Mukharrim quar-
ter * in Baghdadh takes its name from Mukharrim ibn-Shu-
raih B ibn-Hazn al-Harithi.
• • •
The Kantarat al-Baradan quarter, from as-Sari ibn-al-
Hutaim,6 the builder of al-Hutamiyah.
As-Salihiyah, from Salih ibn-al-Mansur.
Al-Harbiyah, from Harb ibn-'Abdali&h al-Balkhi,T the
commander of the guard in al-Mausil under Ja'far ibn-abi- 296
Ja'far.
Az-Zuhairiyah or Bab at-Tibn, from Zuhair ibn-Muham-
mad of the inhabitants of Abiward.
1 *. e., " the oriental palace ". Ya'kubi, p. 245.
1 Ar. ghallah = rent paid for buildings standing on the property of
the state.
• The following list is an abridged form of the original.
4 Le Strange, pp. 217-230.
• Duraid, p. 238, omits " ibn-Shuraih ".
9 Mardsid, vol. ii, p. 453 : " as-Surai ibn-al-^utam ".
1 Cf. Ma^asin, vol. i, p. 3P7-
MADINAT AS-SALAM 459
'Isabadh, from 'Isa ibn-al-Mahdi.1
Kasr 'Abdawaih standing opposite Baratha, from 'Abda-
waih, a notable of the Azd.
Al-Mansur assigned as fief to Sulaiman ibn-Mujalid the
site of his home ; to Muhalhil ibn-Saf wan, after whom Darb
Muhalhil is named, a special fief ; to 'Umarah ibn-Hamzah,
the quarter that bears his name ; to Maimun abu-Bishr after
whom Takat Bishr are named, a special fief near Bustan al-
Kass ; 2 to Shubail, his f reedman, a fief near Dar Yaktin ;
to umm-'Ubaidah, a freedmaid of Muhammad ibn-'Ali, a
fief; to Munirah, a freedmaid of Muhammad ibn-'Ali and
after whom Darb Munirah and Khan [inn] Munirah are
named, a special fief ; and to Raisanah 3 a spot known by the
name of Masjid bani-Raghban.4
Darb [path] Mihrawaih takes its name from Mihra- 297
waih ar-Razi who was one of the captives of Sinfadh and
was set free by al-Mahdi.
The city a residence for the caliphs. Al-Mansur lived in
Madinat as- Sal am to the last days of his caliphate. He
made a pilgrimage from it and died in Makkah. The city
was then occupied by the caliph al-Mahdi. Later, al-Mahdi
left for Masabadh&n, where he died. Most of the time he
spent in Madinat as-Salam was passed in palaces he built
at Isab&dh.
Madinat as-Salam was then occupied by al-Hadi Musa
ibn-al-Mahdi, who died in it. Ar-Rashid Harun also re-
sided in it, and later left it for ar-Rafikah where he stayed
for a while and then departed for Khurasan, and died at
Tfus. The city became after that the residence of Muham-
mad ibn-ar-Rashid, who was slain in it.
1 Tonbih, pp. 343-344.
■ Ya'fciito, p. 247.
— — — -, Fw —WW '
• Mardsid, vol. it, p. 433.
4 Dhahabi, p. 227 -, Ya'kubi, pp. 344-245-
460 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Al-Ma'mun 'Abdallah ibn-ar-Rashid came to the city
from Khurasan and took up his abode in it. He then left
on an expedition during which he died at al-Fadhandun and
was buried at Tarsus.
Surrarmathra'a, a residence for the caliphs. Caliph al-
Mu'tasim-Billah made his residence in it and then left it for
al-I£atul x where he occupied the Kasr ar-Rashid which was
built when ar-Rashid dug out Katulah [canal] and called
it abu-1-Jund [the father of the army] because the land
watered by it produced enough provisions for the army.
Al-Mu'tasim erected in al-Katul a building which he occu-
pied, and offered the I£asr to Ashnas at-Turki [the Turk],
his freedman. He started to colonize that region and after
beginning a new city, he gave it up and built the city of
Surra-man-ra'a.9 He transplanted people to it and made it
his residence. At the meeting point of the streets, he built
a cathedral mosque, and called the city Surra-man-ra'a. Al-
Mu'tasim made his freedman, Ashnas, together with the
other generals who had joined him [Ashnas], settle at
Karkh Fairiiz. Other generals were given the houses
called al-'Arabaya.* Al-Mu'tasim died in Surra-man-ra'a
in the year 227.
Harun al-W4thik-Billah lived to the last day of his life in
a house which he built at Surra-man-ra'a and called al-Ha-
runi.
When in dhu-1-Hijjah, year 232, the caliph Ja'far al-Mu-
tawakkil-'Alallah was installed, he made al-Haruni his resi-
dence. He erected many buildings and assigned to different
men fiefs in a place back of Surra-man-ra'a called al- 298
1 TanMh, pp. 356-357.
* Ya'kubi, pp. 256-257; Yakut, vol. iii, p. 14; Tabari, vol. iii, pp.
1 1 79- 1 180.
* Mor&sid, vol. v, p. 501, n.; Mushtarik, p. 183.
MAD1NAT AS-SALAM 461
Hi'ir x in which al-Mu'tasim had put him in confinement,
thus giving more space for the inhabitants. Al-Mutawak-
kil also built a great cathedral mosque and lavished enor-
mous sums of money on it, making the minaret so high that
the voices of the muezzins could be easily heard, and the
minaret could be seen at a distance of many parasangs.
The Moslems gave up the first mosque and held Friday
prayers in it.
Al-Mutawakkiliyah. Al-Mutawakkil founded a city
which he called al-Mutawakkiliyah. He built it between al-
Karkh, known by the name of Fairuz, and al-Katul, known
by the name of Kisra, chose it for his abode and gave fiefs
in it. The houses and the villages known as al-Mahuzah 2
were included in it. Al-Mutawakkil built in this city a
cathedral mosque. From the time he started the city to the
time he occupied it, only a few months elapsed, the occupa-
tion having taken place at the beginning of the year 246.
Here he died in Shauwal, [2] 47.
In the same night on which he died, al-Muntasir-Billah
was proclaimed caliph; and on Tuesday the 10th of Shau-
wal, he left al-Mutawakkiliyah for Surra-man-ra'a, where
he died.
'Uyun at-Taff. 'Uyun [springs] at-Taff 8 which include
'Ain as-Said, al-Kutkutanah, ar-Ruhaimah, 'Ain Jamal and
the lands that belonged to them, were held by the garri-
sons that guarded the frontier forts beyond as-Sawad.
These springs lay near Khandak [trench] Sabur, which
Sabur had dug between him and the Arabs who guarded
the frontier and the other Arabs who lived there. Sabur
allowed them the use of the land as fief without collecting
kharaj from them.
1 Tabari, vol. iii, p. 75*, and Ya'kubi, p. 258: "al-tfair". Cf. Yalput,
vol. ii, p. 189.
8 Athir, vol. vii, pp. 56, 68: " al-Makhurah ".
• Yakut, vol. iii, p. 539 ; Hamadhani, p. 187.
462 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
In the battle of dhu-K&r in which Allah through his
Prophet gave the Arabs the victory, the Arabs gained pos-
session of some of these springs, the rest remaining in the
hands of the Persians. When the Arabs advanced to al-
Hirah, the Persians took to flight after covering over with
earth all the springs in their lands. The Arabs who held
the remaining springs embraced Islam ; and the land which
they cultivated became tithe-land.
After the battles of al-Kadisiyah and al Mada'in, the
lands whose owners had evacuated them, were turned over
to the Moslems and given out as fiefs, thus becoming tithe-
lands. Such was the case with 'Uyiin at-Taff whose lands
are treated like the villages in the valley of al-Madinah and 299
the villages of Najd, all the sadakah thereof being given to
the 'dmils of al-Madinah.
When IshaLk ibn-Ibrahim ibn-Mus'ab ruled over as-Sa-
• • •
wad in the name of al-Mutawakkil, he added these 'Uyun
and their lands to what he already controlled; and he col-
lected their tithe, treating them as any other land in as-Sa-
wad, which status they still retain. The Moslems later dug
out many other springs which irrigate lands that are treated
in a similar way.
'Ain al-Jamal. I was told by a slieikh that 'Ain al-
Jamal * was so called because a camel [ Ar. jamal] died near
it. Others say that the one who dug it out was called Jamal.
'Ain as-Said. i Ain as-Said 2 [fishing spring] was so
called because fish gathered in it. I was told by certain
Kuraiziyun [ ?] that this spring was one of those covered
with earth. As one of the Moslems was passing there, the
legs of his horse sank in the mud. He dismounted and dug
in the ground ; and the water appeared. With the help of
1 Rustah, p. 180: " 'Ain Jamal".
8 Ibid., p. 180: '"Ain Said"; cf. Khurdadhbih, p. 146.
MAD1NAT AS-SALAM 463
certain men he called, the earth and soil were removed, the
course was opened and the water issued as before. The
spring then passed to the hands of *Isa ibn-'Ali, who bought
it from a son of Hasan ibn-Hasan ibn-'Ali ibn-abi-Talib.
One of 'Isa's wives was umm-Kalthum, daughter of Hasan
ibn-Hasan. Mu'awiyah in exchange for the caliphate, as-
signed, together with other things, 'Ain as-Said as fief to
al-Hasan ibn-'Ali.
'Ain ar-Rahbah. 'Ain ar-Rahbah was also one of the
springs buried of old. A pilgrim from Karman once saw
it leaking; and when he returned from his pilgrimage, he
advised 'Isa ibn-Musa regarding it and pointed it out to
him. This Karm&n man took it as fief with its land and
dug it out. He cultivated the lands around it and planted
the palm-trees which stand on al-'Udhaib road.
'Uyun al-'Irk. A few parasangs from Hit lie certain
springs called al-'Irk which are similar to 'Uyun at-Taff,
and whose tithes are taken by the chief of Hit.
The meaning of Sawdd. Al-Athram from abu-'Amr ibn-
al-'Ala' : — When the Arabs saw the great number of vil-
lages, palm and other trees, they exclaimed, "Never did we
see a greater number of sawadl" t. e., objects. Hence the
name of the country as-Sawad.
The market compared to the place of worship. Al-
Kasim ibn-Sallam from Muhammad ibn-abi-Musa : — One
day 'AH went out to the market and saw that his relatives 300
had secured special places, upon which he remarked, " That
can not be. For the Moslems, the market is similar to the
place of worship : he who arrives first can hold his seat all
day until he leaves it."
Abu-'Ubaid from 'Abd-ar-Rahman ibn-'Ubaid's father:
— The latter said, "In the time of al-Mughirah ibn-Shu'bah,
we used to go early into the market; and when one sat in
a place, he had claim on it until the nightfall. But when
464 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Ziyad came, he ordered that he who sat in a place, could
claim it so long as he occupied it."
According to Marwan, al-Mughirah held the governor-
ship of al-Kuf ah twice : once for 'Umar and another time
for Mu'awiyah.
CHAPTER XII
Arabic Made the Language of the Register
Al-Mada'ini 'Ali ibn-Muhammad ibn-abi-Saif from his
•
sheikhs: — Persian was the language of the register of the
khardj of as-Sawad and the rest of al-'Irak. When al-
Hajjaj became ruler of al-'Irak he chose Zadan Farrukh
ibn-Yabra for secretary, and the latter was assisted by
Salih ibn-'Abd-ar-Rahman, a freedman of the banu-Ta-
mim, who knew both Arabic and Persian. Salih's father
was one of the captives of Sijistan. Through Zadan Far-
rukh, Salih was acquainted with al-Hajjaj, who found him
acceptable. One day Salih said to Zadan, " Thou art the
means by which I became acquainted with the governor;
and I see that he has found me acceptable. I, therefore,
do not wonder if he should promote me over thee, in which
case thou wouldst fall." " Never believe that/' answered
Zadan ; " he has more use for me than I for him, because
none but myself can be found to keep his books." " By
Allah," retorted Salih, " if thou so desire, I could change
the accounts into Arabic." " Try a part of it," said Zadan,
" and I will see." Salih having done that, Zadan asked
him to feign illness, which he did. Al-Hajjaj sent his own
physician, but found nothing wrong with Salih. Hearing
that, Zadan ordered him to appear.
In the days of 'Abd-ar-Rahman ibn-Muhammad ibn-al-
Ash'ath al-Kindi, Zadan Farrukh was killed on his way
from some house to his own home, or some other man's
home. Thereupon, al-Hajjaj made Salih secretary in the
465
466 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
place of Zadan. Salih reported to al-Hajjaj the con-
versation that took place between him and Zadan relative
to the change of the language of the register. Al-Hajjaj 301
immediately made up his mind to adopt Arabic as the lan-
guage of the register and charged Salih with the task.
Mardanshah ibn-Zadan Farrukh asked SAlih, "What
wouldst thou do with dahwiyah and shashwiyah?" To
this, S&lih replied, " I shall use instead 'ushr [tenth] and
nusf'ushr1 [half-tenth]."— " And what about wid?"—"I
shall use aidan " (wid means excess).9 Hearing that, Mar-
danshah said, " May God efface thy trace from the world
as thou hast effaced the trace of the Persian ! " Salih was
later offered 100,000 dirhams in order to show that it was
impossible to change the language of the register and to re-
frain from doing it; but he refused and carried out the
plan. 'Abd-al-Hamid ibn-Yahya, the secretary of Marwan
ibn-Muhammad used to say, " Great is Salih, and great is
the favor he has bestowed upon the secretaries ! "
'Umar ibn-Shabbah from Sahl ibn-abi-as-Salt : — Al-
Hajjaj assigned for S&lih ibn-'Abd-ar-Rahman a certain
period in which to change the language of the register.*
1 These are the Arabic equivalent of the Persian terms dahwiyah and
shashwiyah; shash means six.
2wtd or waid is used to-day in Persian in the sense of "little".
Ar. aidan corresponds to ditto.
* Cf. Mawardi, p. 350.
PART X
MEDIA [AL-JIBAL]
CHAPTER I
HULWAN
Hulwan capitulates. After the decisive battle of Jalula'
had been won by the Moslems, Hashim ibn-'Utbah ibn-abi-
Wakkas added to the forces of Jarir ibn-'Abdallah al-Ba-
jali a heavy detachment of cavalry and stationed him at
Jalula' between the Moslems and their enemy [the Per-
sians] .
Later on, Sa'd sent Jarir about 3,000 Moslems and or-
dered him to advance with them and his forces to Hulwan.1
No sooner had Jarir approached Hulwan than Yazdajird
fled away in the direction of Isbahan. Hulwan capitulated ;
and Jarir promised to spare the people and guarantee their
lives and possessions without interfering with those who
preferred to flee the land.
Karmdsin. Leaving in Hulwin a part of his forces [ ?]
with 'Azrah ibn-Kais ibn-Ghaziyah-1-Bajali, Jarir pushed
towards ad-Dinawar, which he failed to reduce. He, how-
ever, reduced Karmasin' on the same terms as Hulwan.
He then returned to Hulw&n and held its governorship until
the arrival of 'Ammar ibn-Yasir in al-Kufah. 'Amm&r
wrote to Jarir that 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab wanted him to re-
inforce abu-Musa-l-Ash'ari [in Tustar]. Accordingly, Jarir
left 'Azrah ibn-Kais over Hulwan, and in the year 19 made 302
his way to join abu-Musa.
Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from 'A'ishah, daughter of Sa'd ibn-
1 Rustah, pp. 164-165.
1 Ya^iit, vol. iv, p. 6a
469
47o THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
abi-Wakkas: — The latter said, "When Mu'&wiyah put
Hujr ibn-'Adi-l-Kindi l to death, my father made the f ol-
lowing remark, ' If Mu'&wiyah had seen the part Hujr had
taken * in the reduction of Hulwan, he would have realized
of what great value he was to Islam '."
According to al-Wakidi, certain sons of Jarir ibn-Abdal-
lah settled in Hulwan, where their descendants are still
living.
1 Agh&ni, vol. xvi, pp. 3-4; Athir, vol. iii, pp. 392 seq.; Mas'ucfi, voL
v, pp. 15 seq.
1 Text not clear. Cf. 5 ajar, vol i, p. 645.
CHAPTER II
The Conquest of Nihawand
An-Nu'tndn in chief command. In the year 19, when
Ya2dajird fled away from Hulwan, the Persians and the
people of ar-Rai, Kumis,1 Isbahan, Hamadhan and al-Ma-
hain communicated with one another and, in the year 20,
joined Yazdajird. The latter put at their head Mardanshah
dhu--Hajib and they unfurled their flag ad-Dirafshikabi-
yan. These "polytheists" numbered 6o,ooo, and according
to other estimates, 100,000. When 'Amm&r ibn-Yasir com-
muiicated this news to 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab, the latter was
on the point of leading an expedition in person against
then, but desisted lest the Arabs should then prevail over
Najd and other places. The advice to let the Syrians lead
the ittack from Syria and the Yamanites from al-Yaman
was also discarded, lest the Greeks should return to their
home; and the Abyssinians should subjugate what was next
to them. Consequently, he wrote to the people of al-Kuf ah
ordering that two-thirds of them should set out and one-
third should stay for the defense of their homes and coun-
try. From the people of al-Basrah, he also sent a group of
men. He then said, " I shall use over the army someone
who shall be the first to expose himself to the spears." *
Accordingly, 'Umar wrote to an-Nu'man ibn-'Amr ibn-Mu-
karrin al-Muzani, who was at that time with as-Sa'ib ibn-al-
1 In Tibaristan. Yakut, voL iv, p. 203 ; Meynard, pp. 464-465.
* The original is obscure. Cf. Df nawari, p. 142 ; Caetani, vol. iv, p.
215, n. 1.
47i
472 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Akra' ath-Thakafi, assigning him to the leadership of the
army, saying, " In case thou art killed, Hudhaifah ibn-al-
Yaman shall be the leader ; if he should be killed, then Jarix 303
ibn-'Abdallah al-Bajali ; if he should be killed, then al-Mu
ghirah ibn-Shu'bah; and if he should be killed, al-Ash'ati
ibn-Kais." This an-Nu'min was at that time the 'aril
over Kaskar and its territory. Others say he was in al-M-
dinah, and when he received his appointment over this amy
from 'Umar by word of mouth, he started from it.
Shaib&n from Ma'kil ibn-Yasar: — When 'Umar ibml-
Khattab sought the advice of al-Hurmuzan, saying, " Stall
we begin with Isbahan or Adharbaijin [ Atrapatakax] T
al-Hurmuzan replied, " Isbahan is the head, and Adhafei-
jan the wings. Cut off the head, and the wings will f al off
together with it." l
Al-Mughirah as envoy. When 'Umar entered the mospe
[in al-Madinah], his eyes fell on an-Nu'man ibn-lu-
karrin; so he took a seat by his side. When he ns
through with his prayer, 'Umar said, " I want thee t< be
my 'fanil [lieutenant] ". An-Nu'man replied, "If acol-
lecting-'4mt7, no ; but if an invading-'ami/, yes." " Ai in-
vading one," said 'Umar. Thus 'Umar sent an-Nu'marand
wrote to the people of al-Kufah to reinforce him, duch
they did, sending among others al-Mughirah ibn-Shuhah.
An-Nu'man sent al-Mughirah to dhu-1-Hajibain,1 the Per-
sian chief at Nihawand.* Al-Mughirah [reaching the Per-
sian camp] drew his sword and began cutting the rigs to
pieces until he presented himself before the chief, upon
which he took his seat on the throne. By dhu-l-Hjib's
1 Cf. Tabari, vol. i, pp. 2600-2601 ; Mas'udi, vol. iv, p. 230.
* H« is also called dhu-1-IJajib Mardanshah.
•or Nahawand. Mullcr, vol. i, p. 245; Meynard, pp. 573-576 ;Y%&
vol. iv, pp. 406, 827.
IT'
-i.
THE CONQUEST OF N1HAWAND 473
order, al-Mughirah was dragged out So he exclaimed:
" [Remember that] I am an envoy ! "
The battle fought. When the Moslems met the " poly-
theists ", they found them fastened in chains, in tens and
fives, so that they might not flee. Before the fight started
they shot their arrows and wounded some of the Moslems.
Then an-Nu'man said, " I noticed that when the Prophet
did not carry on the fight in the morning, he would wait
until the sun set and the wind blew; then the victory
would be assured." x An-Nu'man added, " I shall now
shake the standard I carry three times. After the first
shake, let each perform the ablutions and satisfy his
natural wants. After the second shake, let each turn to his
sword (he may have said sandal-thong) and get ready,
putting everything in order. When the third shake is, by
Allah's will, made, then rush and let none of you heed the
other." Saying this, an-Nu'man shook the standard and
they did as he had ordered them. His coat of mail was too 304
heavy for him ; but he fought and his men fought ; and he
was the first Moslem to be killed.
The Persian [dhu-1-Hajib] fell from his mule and his
belly was cut open.
Ma'kil ibn-Yasar [the narrator of this tradition] adds,
" Coming to an-Nu'man and finding that life had not yet
fully departed from him, I washed his face with some water
I carried in a vessel ; upon which he asked, 'Who art thou ?'
— ' Ma'kil.' — ' How did the Moslems fare?' — ' I have glad
tidings ; Allah has given us conquest and victory !' — ' Praise
be to Allah ! Write and tell 'Umar about it.' "
The news carried to 'Umar. Shaiban from abu-'Uth-
min an-Nahdi : — The latter said, " I myself carried the
glad news to 'Umar who asked, ' And what about an-Nu'-
1 Cf. Tabari, vol. i, p. 2603.
474 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
man ?' ' He was killed/ said I. ' We are Allah's/ re-
marked 'Umar, ' and to Allah we return/ Saying this, he
began to cry. I then said, ' By Allah, he was killed with
others whom I know not.' ' But whom Allah knows/ said
he."
Ahmad ibn-Ibrahim from abu-'Uthman an-Nahdi : — The
latter said, " When 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab received the news
of the death of an-Nu'man ibn-Mukarrin, he covered his
face with his hands and began to cry."
The version of as-Sa'ib. Al-Kasim ibn-Sall&m from as-
Sa'ib ibn-al-Akra' : — The latter said, " An army, the similar
to which was never seen before, marched against the Mos-
lems." He then cited the tradition regarding 'Umar's in-
tention to lead the expedition in person, his appointment of
an-Nu'm&n ibn-Mukarrin, the forwarding with as-Sa'ib
(whom 'Umar put in charge of the booty) of the appoint-
ment in which these words occur : " Bring no false case to
my attention, and never hold justice from anyone." x The
tradition then gives an account of the battle and mentions
that an-Nu'man was the first to be killed in the battle of
Nihawand, upon which Hudhaif ah carried the standard and
Allah gave them [the Arabs] victory. As-Sa'ib adds, " I
gathered the booty and divided it. After that there came
to me a spy,8 saying, 'The treasure of an-Nakhirkhan 8 is in 305
the castle.' When I climbed up there, I found two chests
containing pearls, the similar to which I never saw before.
I then made my way to 'Umar who, having not yet received
the news, was roaming in the streets [of al-Madinah] and
making inquiries. Seeing me, 'Umar exclaimed, 'Oh ! what
news ?' I gave him an account of the battle and the death
1 Cf. Tabari, vol. i, p. 2597.
1 Cf. Dinawari, p. 145.
• Ibid., p. 145 : " Nukharijan ".
THE CONQUEST OF NIHAWAND 475
of an-Nu'man and mentioned the case of the two chests.
'Umar said ' Go and sell the chests and divide the price
among the Moslems/ Accordingly, I took them to al-Ku-
fah, where I met a young man of the Kuraish, * Amr ibn-
Huraith, by name, who paid their price from the stipends
of [his own] family and the warriors of its members. One
chest he took to al-Hirah, where he sold it for the same
price he had paid me for both ; and the other he kept. This
was the first part of the fortune 'Amr amassed."
Other versions. A certain biographer reports that the
battle of Nihawand was fought on Wednesday and Thurs-
day and, after a short cessation, fighting was continued on
Friday. He reports in describing the battle a similar tradi-
tion to that reported by Hammad ibn-Salamah.
Ibn-al-Kalbi from abu-Mikhnaf: — An-Nu'm4n camped
at al-Isbidhahar * with al-Ash'ath ibn-Kais commanding
his right wing and al-Mughirah ibn-Shu'bah, the left wing.
In the fight that ensued, an-Nu'man was killed. At last the
Moslems won the victory; and that conquest was termed
"the victory of victories." The conquest of Nihawand
took place on Wednesday, year 19, and according to others,
20.
Ar-Rifa'i from al-Hasan and Muhammad: — The battle
• *
of Nihawand took place in the year 21. A similar tradi-
tion was communicated to me by ar-Rif k'i on the authority
of Muhammad ibn-Ka'b.'
Dinar makes terms for the city. Others report that after
the defeat of the Persian army and the victory of the Mos-
lems, Hudhaifah, who was at that time the leader, laid siege
to Nihawand, whose inhabitants made sorties but were de-
1 Hamadhani, pp. 211, 259, and Dinawari, p. 143: " al-Isfidhahan " ;
Yakut, vol. i, p. 239: " Isbidhahan ".
* Cf. Weil, vol. i, pp. 8B-94 ; Muir, Annals, pp. 255-258; Muir, Cali-
phate, pp. 178-180; Wellhausen, Skissen, vol vi, p. 97.
476 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
feated. One day Simak ibn-'Ubaid al-'Absi chased a Per-
sian who was accompanied by 8 horsemen. Simak killed
all eight, as each of them in turn turned against him. See- 306
ing that he was left alone, the man chased yielded and laid
down his arms. Simak took him as prisoner ; but as he spoke
Persian, Simak called someone who understood him and
translated what he said, which was, " I shall go to your
leader that I may make terms with him on this land, pay
him poll-tax, and give thee for taking me as prisoner what-
ever thou requestest. To thee I owe a great deal because
thou didst spare my life." Simak asked, "What is thy
name ?" and he replied, " Dinar ". Simik led him to Hu-
dhaifah who made terms with him, stipulating that the
khardj and poll-tax be paid, and that the safety of the pos-
sessions, walls and dwellings of the inhabitants of his city,
Nihawand, be guaranteed. Nihawand was thereafter called
Mah Dinar. Dinar often came after that to Simak, offer-
ing him presents and showing his loyalty.
Mah al-Basrah and Mdh al-Kufah. Abu-Mas'ud al-Kufi
from al-Mubarak ibn-Sa'd's father: — Nihawand was one
of the places conquered by the people of al-Kufah, whereas
ad-Dinawar was one of those conquered by the people of
al-Basrah. The increase of the Moslems at al-Kufah made
*
it necessary that the lands the khardj of which was divided
among them be increased. Consequently, [the district of]
ad-Dinawar was given them, in exchange for which the
people of al-Basrah were given [the district of] Nihawand
which formed a part of [the province of] Isbahin. The
excess of the khardj of ad-Dinawar over that of Nihawand
was therefore a gain for the people of al-Kufah.1 Niha-
wand was thereafter called Mah al-Basrah; and ad-Dina-
war, Mah al-Kufah. All this took place during the cali-
phate of Mu'awiyah.
1 Cf. Caetani, vol. iv, p. 50a.
THE CONQUEST OP NIHAWAND 477
The meaning of " al-Yamdn ". I have been informed by
certain men of learning that Hudhaifah ibn-al-Yam&n was
the son of Husail [Hisl] ibn-Jabir al-'Absi. He was an
ally of the banu-'Abd-al-Ashhal of al-Ansdr; and his mother
was ar-Rabab, daughter of Ka'b ibn-'Adi of the 'Abd-al-
Ashhal tribe. His father was killed in the battle of Uhud
by 'Abdallah ibn-Mas'ud al-Hudhali, who killed him by
mistake, taking him for an " unbeliever ". In accordance
with the Prophet's order, the blood money was paid; but
Hudhaifah distributed it among the Moslems. According
to al-Wakidi, Husail was nicknamed al-Yaman because he
had commercial interests in al-Yaman ; and whenever he ar-
rived in al-Madinah, people would say, " Here comes al-
Yamani [of which al-Yaman is a shortened form]." Ac-
cording to al-Kalbi, however, Hudhaifah was the son of
Husail ibn-Jabir ibn-Rabi'ah ibn-'Amr ibn-Jurwah, Jurwah
being the one nicknamed al-Yam&ni after whom Hudhaifah
was so called, although between the two many generations
intervened. Jurwah, in pre-Islamic times, killed someone 307
and fled to al-Madinah, where he became an ally of the
banu-'Abd-al-Ashhal. His people called him al-Yamani
because he made an alliance with the Yamanites.
CHAPTER III
Ad-Dinawar, Masabadhan and Mihrijankadhaf
Ad-Dinawar makes terms. Abu-Musa-1-Ash'ari left Ni-
hawand, to which he had come with the army of al-Basrah
for the reinforcement of an-Nu'man ibn-Mukarrin. On
his way, he passed by ad-Dinawar where he camped for
five days, in which he was offered resistance "for only one
day. The people of ad-Dinawar then agreed to pay tax
and khardj, and sought safety for their lives, possessions
and children. Abu-Musa granted their request and left
over the city his (dmil, together with some horsemen, and
proceeded to Masabadhan, whose people offered no resist-
ance.1
As-Siraavdn makes terms. The people of as-Sirawan
made terms similar to those of ad-Dinawar, agreeing to
pay poll-tax and khardj; and abu-Musa sent detachments
and conquered all the lands of ad-Dinawar. Others assert
that abu-Musa conquered Masabadhan before the battle of
Nihawand.
As-Saimarah capitulates. Abu-Musa 'Abdallah ibn-
Kais al-Ash'ari sent as-Sa'ib ibn-al-Akra' ath-Thakafi — who
was his son-in-law through his daughter umm-Muhammad
ibn-as-Si'ib — to as-Saimarah the chief city of Mihrijan-
kadhaf. The city capitulated ; and it was agreed that the
lives of the inhabitants be spared, that no captives be taken,
and that no pieces of gold or silver be carried away, pro-
1 Cf. Athir, vol. ii, p. 409; Tabari, vol. i, p. 24771 Ya^ut, voL iv, p.
393.
478
AD-D1NAWAR, MASABADHAN AND MIHRIJANKADHAF 479
vided the inhabitants paid poll-tax and kharaj on the land.
As-Sa'ib reduced all the districts of Mihrijankadhaf. The
more reliable report is that abu-Musa dispatched as-Sa'ib
from al-Ahwaz; and the latter reduced Mihrijankadhaf.
Sinn Sumairah. Muhammad ibn-'Ukbah ibn-Musrim1
ad-Dabbi from certain sheikhs of al-Kufah: — When the
Moslems invaded al-Jibal, they passed by the eastern summit
called Sinn Sumairah, Sumairah being a woman of the
Dabbah [a branch] of the banu-Mu'awiyah ibn-Ka'b ibn-
Tha'labah ibn-Sa'd ibn-Dabbah and one of the Emigrants.
Sumairah had a tooth [sinn protruding beyond the 308
others] ; * hence the name of the peak Sinn Sumairah.
Kanatir an-Nu'mdn. Kanatir [arches] an-Nu'man, ac-
cording to ibn-Hisham al-Kalbi, were named after an-Nu'-
man ibn-'Amr ibn-Mukarrin al-Muzani, who camped by
these Kanatir, which had been standing from ancient time.
Kathir ibn^Shihab. Al-' Abbas ibn-HishSm al-Kalbi from
'Awanah : — Kathir ibn-Shihab ibn-al-Husain ibn-dhi-1-
Ghussah-1-Hirithi belonged to the 'Uthman party and often
spoke evil of 'Ali ibn-abi-Talib, and dissuaded men from
following al-Husain. He died either before or at the begin-
ning of the rebellion of al-Mukhtar ibn-abi-'Ubaid. Al-
Mukhtar ibn-abi-'Ubaid referred to him when he said : "By
the Lord of heavens, the severe in punishment, the revealer
of the Book, I shall surely dig the grave of Kathir ibn-Shi-
hab, the transgressor, the liar." Mu'awiyah gave him for
some time the governorship of ar-Rai and Dastaba, which
he held on behalf of Mu'awiyah and his two 'dmils, Ziyid
and al-Mughirah ibn-Shu'bah. After that, he incurred Mu-
'awiyah's anger and was flogged and imprisoned by him in
1 Cf. Mafcasin, vol. i, p. 700, and Tabari, vol. i, p. 2458: '"Ukbah
ibn-Mukram ".
1 Tabari, vol. i, p. 264a
4gO THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
Damascus. Shuraih ibn-Hani' al-Muradi interceded in favor
of Kathir ; and he was released. Yazid ibn-Mu'awiyah, for
selfish reasons, approved of following Kathir and sid-
ing with him, and wrote to 'Ubaidallah ibn-Ziyad, asking
him to appoint Kathir over M&sabadhan, Mihrijankadhaf,
Hulwan and al-M&hain [the two Mahs], which he did, giv-
ing Kathir many villages of the crown-domains in al-Jabal 1
as fief. Here Kathir built the castle which bears his name
and which lies in ad-Dinawar. Zuhrah ibn-al-Harith ibn-
Mansur ibn-Kais ibn-Kathir ibn-Shihab had secured many
crown-villages at Masabadh&n.
Al-Khasharimah. I learned from a descendant of
Khashram ibn-M&lik ibn-Hubairah-1-Asadi that the Kha-
sharimah came first to Masabadhan towards the end of the
Umaiyad dynasty, their grandfather being an emigrant
from al-Kufah.
Kathir made governor. Al-'Umari from al-Haitham ibn-
' Adi : — Ziyad was one day on a trip when the belt of his
robe became loose. Kathir ibn-Shihab immediately drew a
needle, that was stuck in his cap, and a thread and mended
the belt. Seeing that, Ziyad said, " Thou art a man of dis-
cretion ; and such a one should never go without an office."
Saying this, he appointed him governor over a part of al-
Jabal.
1or al-Jibal = Persian 'Irak or Media. Meynard, p. 151; Kazwini,
p. 228; Hamadhani, p. 209; Rustah, p. 106.
CHAPTER IV
The Conquest of Hamadhan 309
J art r reduces Hamadhan. In the year 23 A. H., al-Mu-
ghirah ibn-Shu'bah who, after the dismissal of 'Amm&r ibn-
Yasir, was the 'am*7 of 'Umar ibn-al-Khatt&b over al-Ku-
fah, dispatched Jarir ibn-'Abdallah al-Bajali to Hama-
dhan.1 The inhabitants of Hamadhan offered resistance
and repelled his attacks, in the course of which Jarir re-
ceived an arrow in his eye ; and he remarked, " I give up
my eye, seeking recompense from Allah who decorated with
it my face and provided me by means of it with light, so
long as he willed, and then deprived me of it as I was in his
cause!" After that he reduced Hamadhan, which made
terms similar to those of Nihawand. This took place
toward the close of the year 23. Its inhabitants, having
later rebelled, drove Jarir back; but he finally took their
land by force.1
Other versions. According to al-Wakidi, Jarir reduced
Nihawand in the year 24, six months after the death of
'Umar ibn-al-Khattib.
It is reported by others that al-Mughirah ibn-Shu'bah,
with Jarir leading the vanguard, marched against Hama-
dhan and, after reducing it, put it in charge of Kathir ibn-
Shihab al-Harithi.
The terms with al-'AUF. 'Abbas ibn-Hisham from his
grandfather and 'Awanah ibn-al-Hakam : — When Sa'd ibn-
1 Ecbatana. See Meynard, pp. 597-608.
* Cf. Ya^ut, vol. iv, p. 981 ; Athir, vol. iii, p. 16.
481
4g2 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
abi-Wakkas ruled over al-Kufah in behalf of 'Uthman ibn-
• • •
'Aff&n, he assigned over Mah and Hamadhan al-'Ala' ibn-
Wahb ibn-'Abd ibn-Wahban of the banu-'Amir ibn-Lu'ai.
The people of Hamadhan acted treacherously and violated
the covenant, on account of which al-'Ala' fought against
them until they surrendered. The terms he made with
them stipulated that, on the one hand, they should pay
khardj on their land and tax on their person and deliver to
him 100,000 dirhams for the Moslems; and that, on die
other hand, he should not interfere with their possessions,
inviolable rights and children.
Mddhardn. According to ibn-al-Kalbi, the castle known
by the name of Madharan was so called after as- Sari ibn-
Nusair 1 ibn-Thaur al-'Ijli, who camped around it until he
reduced it.
Sisar. Ziyid ibn-'Abd-ar-Rahman al-Balkhi from cer- 310
tain sheikhs of Sisar : — Sisar was so called because it lay in
a depression surrounded by thirty hills. Hence its other
name "Thalathun Ra's" [thirty summits]. It was also
called Sisar Sadkhaniyah which means thirty summits and
a hundred springs, because it has as many as one hundred
springs.
Sisar and the adjoining region were pasture-lands for the
Kurds and others. It also had meadows for the beasts of bur-
den and the cattle of caliph al-Mahdi, and was entrusted to
a f reedman of his called Sulaiman ibn-Kirat — whose name
Sahra' Kirat in Madinat as-Salam bears — and to a partner
of his, Sallam at-Taifuri, Taifur having been a f reedman
of abu-Ja'far al-Mansur and having been given by him as
present to al-Mahdi. When in the caliphate of al-Mahdi the
destitute [sa'alik] and villain became numerous and spread
over al-Jabal, they chose this region for their refuge and
1 Cf. Mardsid, vol. iii, p. 27.
THE CONQUEST OF HAMADHAN 483
stronghold, to which they resorted after acting as highway-
men, and from which they could not be called back, be-
cause it was a boundary line between Hamadhan, ad-Dina-
war and Adharbaij&n. Sulaiman and his colleague wrote
to al-Mahdi, reporting the case of those who interfered
with their beasts and cattle. Thereupon, al-Mahdi directed
against them a great army and wrote to Sulaiman and Sal-
lam, ordering them to build a city and occupy it with their
associates and shepherds and use it as a refuge for their
beasts and cattle against those who threatened them. Ac-
cordingly, they built the city of Sisar, fortified it, and made
people settle in it. The district [rustdk] of Mayanharaj x
in ad-Dinawar, and that of al-Judhamah in Adharbaijin
which is a part of the province of Barzah, together with
Rustuf* and Khabanjar were added to Sisar; and the
whole was made into one district that was put under one
'dmil to whom its kharaj was paid.*
Later, in the caliphate of ar-Rashid, this band of desti-
tute multiplied and badly damaged Sisar. Ar-Rashid
ordered that it be repaired and fortified, stationing in it
1,000 of the men of Khakan al-Kh&dim as-Sughdi, whose
descendants are still in it. Towards the end of his cali- 3 IT
phate, ar-Rashid appointed Murrah ibn-abi-Murrah ar-Ru-
daini-l-'Ijli over Sisar. 'Uthman al-Audi attempted to
wrest it from his hands, but failed, succeeding4 only in
wresting all or most of what Murrah already held at
Adharbaijan. Until the time of the insurrection, Murrah
ibn-ar-Rudaini did not cease in the days of Muhammad ibn-
ar-Rashid to pay the fixed khardj of Sisar which he had
1 Khurd&dhbih, p. 120. Hamadhani, p. 240: "Mayanmaraj
2 ? perhaps rust&fr ; cf. Yafpit, vol. iii, p. 216.
• Hamadhani, pp. 239-240.
4 According to Hamadhani, p. 240, he failed in that, too.
»
484 THB ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
agreed to pay annually.1 In the caliphate of al-Ma'mun,
Sisar was taken from the hand of 'Asim ibn-Murrah and
once more added to the crown-domains [diya' al-khilafah].
Al-Mafazah. I was told by certain sheikhs from al-Ma-
fazah, which is situated near Sisar, that when al-Jurashi*
ruled over al-Jabal the inhabitants of al-Mafazah evacu-
ated their town. Al-Jurashi had a general, Hammim ibn-
Hani' al-'Abdi, to whom most of the people of al-Maf izah
yielded their villages and held them as tenants in order to
enjoy his protection. Hammam appropriated the villages
to himself and used to pay the treasury what was due on
them until he died. His sons were too weak to hold them.
After the death of Muhammad ibn-Zubaidah, when al-Ma'-
mun was on his way from Khurasan to Madinat as-Sa-
lam, he was met by certain sons of Hammam and a man
from al-Mafazah named Muhammad ibn-al-' Abbas, who
told him the story of the place and informed him of the de-
sire of all the people to give up their lands to him and act as
his tenants in it provided they be protected and strength-
ened against the destitute bands and others. Al-Ma'mun ac-
cepted their offer and ordered that they be reinforced and
strengthened in order to cultivate the lands and repair them.
Thus these lands were added to the crown-domains.
Laila-l-A khyaliyah. According to a tradition communi-
cated to me by al-Mada'ini, Laila-1-Akhyaliyah paid a visit
to al-Hajjaj. He gave her a present, and she requested him
to write and recommend her to his 'amil at ar-Rai. On her
way back, Laila died at Sawah, where she was buried.
* Ar. muk&fa'ah ; M. V. Berchem, La Propriiti Territoriale et Vlmptt
Fonder sous les Premiers Calif est p. 45.
1 Cf. " al-Barashi w in YaTjribi, p. 253-
' CHAPTER V
Kumm, Kashan and Isbahan 312
Kumm and Kashan reduced. Leaving Nihawand, abu-
Musa 'Abdallah ibn-Kais al-Ash'ari came to al-Ahwaz, and
after passing through it, stopped at Kumm which he
reduced after a few days' fight. He then directed al-Ah-
naf ibn-Kais, whose name was ad-Dahhak ibn-Kais at-
Tamimi to Kashan, which he took by force. Abu-Musa
then overtook him.1
Jai and al-Y ahudlyah capitulate. In the year 23, 'Umar
ibn-al-Khattab directed 'Abdallah ibn-Budail ibn-Warka'
al-Khuza'i to Isbah&n. Others assert that 'Umar wrote to
abu-Musa-1-Ash'ari ordering him to direct 'Abdallah at the
head of an army to Isbahan, which abu-Musa did. 'Ab-
dallah ibn-Budail conquered Jai,* which capitulated after
a fight, agreeing to pay kharaj and poll-tax, provided the
population be guaranteed the safety of their lives and all
possessions with the exception of the arms in their hands.
'Abdallah ibn-Budail then directed al-Ahnaf ibn-Kais,
who was in his army, to al-Yahudiyah,* whose inhabitants
made terms similar to those of Jai.
Thus ibn-Budail effected the conquest of the territory
of Isbahan with its districts over which he acted as 'amil to
1 Cf. Yakut, vol. iv, pp. 15, 175.
* A part of Isbahan. Istakhri, p. 198, note n ; IJaukal, p. 261 ; Yafcut,
vol. ii, p. 181 ; Meynard, pp. 188-189.
f Another suburb of Isbahan. Yakut, vol. iv, p. 1045.
485
486 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
the end of the first year of 'Uthman's caliphate, at which
time 'Uthman appointed as-S&'ib ibn-al-Akra'.
Bos hit's version. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd, a freedman of
the banu-Hashim, from Bashir ibn-abi-Umaiyah : — Al-
Ash'ari camped at Isbahan and proposed to the people the
idea of Islam, which they refused. He then proposed that
they pay tax, upon which they made terms agreeing to pay
it. The very next morning they rebelled; and he fought
against them and, by Allah's help, defeated them. Mu-
hammad ibn-Sa'd, however, adds, " In my view this refers
to the inhabitants of Kumm."
The satrap of Isbahdn. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from Mu-
hammad ibn-Ishak: — 'Umar sent ibn-Budail al-Khuza'i to
• • •
Isbahan, whose satrap [marzubdn] was an aged man called
al-Fadusafan.1 Ibn-Budail besieged the city and wrote to
the people inciting them to forsake him. Seeing the hike- 313
warmness of his men, al-Fadusafan chose thirty archers,
in whose courage and obedience he confided, and fled away
from the city towards Karman with a view to joining Yaz-
dajird. As soon as 'Abdallah knew of it, he sent after
him a heavy detachment of cavalry. As the Persian
reached a high place, he looked behind and said to * Ab-
dallah, " Take heed for thyself, no arrow of ours misses its
mark. If thou charge, we shoot; and if thou fight a duel,
we will fight! " A duel followed in the course of which
the Persian gave 'AbdallSh* a blow [with the sword]
which, falling on the pommel of his saddle, broke it and cut
the breast-girth [of the horse]. The Persian then said to
'Abdall&h, " I hate to kill thee because I see thou art wise
and brave. Wouldst thou let me go back with thee that I
may arrange terms with thee and pay tax for my towns-
lTabari, vol. i, p. 2659: " al-Fadhusaf an ".
s Cactani, vol. v, p. 10, takes 'Abdallah to be the one who delivered
the blow. C/. Tabari, vol i, p. 2699.
KUMM, KASHAN AND ISBAHAN jty
men, of whom those who stay will be considered dhimmis,
and those who flee will not be interfered with? The city
I will turn over to thee." Ibn-Budail returned with him
and took Jai ; and the Persian fulfilled his promise, saying,
" I saw that ye, people of Isbahan, are mean and disunited.
Ye, therefore, deserve what I did with you."
The territory of Isbahan pays khar&j. Ibn-Budail then
passed through the plains and mountains of the territory
of Isbahan, all of which he conquered, treating them as re-
gards kharaj as he had treated the people of al-Ahwaz.
Some say that the conquest of Isbahan and its territory
was effected partly in the year 23 and partly in the year 24.
Other versions. It is reported by others that 'Umar ibn-
al-Khattab sent at the head of an army 'Abdallah ibn-Bu-
dail, who met abu-Musa, after the latter had conquered
Kumm and Kashan. They both now led the attack against
Isbahan with al-Ahnaf ibn-Kais commanding the van of
abu-Musa's army. Thus they subjugated all al-Yahudiyah
as described above. Ibn-Budail, after that, reduced Jai;
and they both marched through the territory of Isbahan
and reduced it. The most reliable account, however, is that
Kumm and Kashan were conquered by abu-Musa ; whereas
Jai and al-Yahudiyah, by 'Abdallah ibn-Budail.
Abu-Hassan az-Ziyadi from a Thakif man : — In Isbahan
stands the sanctuary1 of 'Uthman ibn-abi-l-'Asi ath-Tha-
kafi.
Persian nobility embrace Islam. Muhammad ibn-Yahya
at-Tamimi from his sheikhs : — To the nobility of Isbahan
belonged various strongholds in Jafrabad in the district of 314
ath-Thaimarah M-Kubra, in Bihjawarsan * and in the fort
1 Ar. mashhad — a place where a martyr died or is buried.
1 Ya'kiibi, p. 275 : u at-Taimara " ; cf. Rustah, p. 154, b ; Yafctit, vol. i,
p. 908.
*or Kahjawarsan, Pers. Gah Gawarsan. Yakut, vol. ii, p. 11.
488 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
of Marabin.1 When Jai was reduced, these nobles offered
homage, agreeing to pay the kharaj ; and because they dis-
dained to pay poll-tax, they became Moslems.
Al-Anbari in Isbahdn. It is stated by al-Kalbi and abu-
1-Yakzan that after al-Hudhail ibn-Kais al-'Anbari was
appointed governor of Isbahan in the time of Marwan, the
'Anbari clan moved there.
Idris ibn-Ma'kil imprisoned. The grandfather of abu-
Dulaf (abu-Dulaf being al-Kasim ibn-'Isa ibn-Idris ibn-
Ma'kil al-'Ijli), whose occupation consisted in preparing
perfumes and trading in sheep, came to al-Jabal with a
number of his relatives and occupied a village at Hama-
dhan called Mass. They became wealthy and came to own
many [crown] villages. One day Idris ibn-Ma'kil attacked
a merchant who owed him money and choked him. Others
say he choked him and took his money. Therefore, he was
carried away to al-Kufah, where he was imprisoned. This
took place when Yusuf ibn-'Umar ath-Thakafi ruled over
al-'Irak in the days of Hisham ibn-Abd-al-Malik.
Al-Karaj rebuilt. After that, 'Isa ibn-Idris came to al-
Karaj,* which he reduced and whose fort, which was dilapi-
dated, he rebuilt Abu-Dulaf al-Kasim ibn-'Isa strength-
ened his position and rose into eminence in the eyes of the
sultan. He enlarged that fort and built the city of al-Ka-
raj which was for that reason called after him Karaj abi-
Dulaf . Al-Karaj to-day forms a district by itself.
Kumm's rebellion suppressed. The inhabitants of Kumm
threw off their allegiance and withheld the khardj. Al-Maf-
mun directed against them 'Ali ibn-Hisham al-Marwazi,
recruiting him with troops * and ordering him to wage war
lCf. Mukaddasi, p. 402: "Sarimin*; Ya'kubi, p. 275: MMi^abIn,,;
Yakut, vol. iv, p. 382: "Marabanan"; Hamadhani, p. 263.
* Meynard, pp. 478-479,
* Tabari, vol. Hi, p. 1093.
KUMM, KASHAN AND ISBAHAN 489
against them. 'Ali did so, killed their chief, Yahya ibn-
'Imran, razed the city wall to the ground and collected over
7,000,000 dirhams as tax, although previous to this they
used to complain that 2,000,000 were too much for them to
pay.
In the caliphate of abu-'Abdallah al-Mu'tazz-Billah ibn-
al-Mutawakkil-'Alallah, they once more threw off their al-
legiance, upon which al-Mu'tazz directed against them
Musa ibn-Bugha, his 'amil over al-Jabal, who was conduct-
ing the war against the Talibites who appeared in Taba-
ristan. Kumm was reduced by force and a large number of
its inhabitants was slaughtered. Al-Mu'tazz wrote that a
group of its leading men should be deported.
CHAPTER VI
The Death op Yazdajird ibn-Shahriyar ibn-Kisra 315
Abarwiz ibn-Hurmuz ibn-Anushirwan
The Aight of Yazdajird. Yazdajird fled from al-Ma-
da'in to Hulwan and thence to Isbahan. When the Mos-
lems were done with Nihawand, he fled from Isbahan to
Istakhr, where he was pursued, after the conquest of Isba-
han, by 'Abdallah ibn-Budail ibn-Warki', but to no avail
Abu-Musa-1-Ash'ari came to Istakhr and attempted its con-
quest, but did not succeed, and likewise did 'Uthman ibn-
abi-l-'Asi ath-Thakafi try it and fail.
In the year 29 when all Persia with the exception of Is-
takhr and Jur * was already reduced, 'Abdallah ibn-'Amir
ibn-Kuraiz proceeded to al-Basrah. Yazdajird was on the
point of leaving for Tabaristan, whose satrap had invited
him, when Yazdajird was still in Isbahan, to come to Ta-
barist&n which he told him was well fortified. It then
occurred to Yazdajird to flee to Karman, to which ibn-
'Amir sent after him Mujashi' ibn-Mas'ud as-Sulami and
Harim ibn-Haiyan al-(Abdi. Muj&shic came and stopped at
Biyamand in Karman, where his army was caught by a
snow storm and nearly annihilated, few only surviving.
The castle in which he resided was called after him Kasr
Mujashi1. Mujashi' then took his way back to ibn-'Amir.
As Yazdajird was one day sitting in Karman, its mar-
zuban came in; but Yazdajird felt too haughty to speak to
1 Tabari, vol. i, p. 2863 : "which is Ardashir KhtirraJT. Cf. Meynard,
P- 23.
490
THE DEATH OF YAZDAJIRD 4^
him, and the marzuban ordered that he be driven out, say-
ing, "Not only art thou unworthy of a kingdom but even of
a governorship of a village ; and if Allah had seen any good
in thee, he would not have put thee in such condition ! "
Yazdajird left for Sijistan * whose king showed regard
for him and exalted him. After a few days Yazdajird
asked about the khardj which made the king change his atti-
tude towards him.
Seeing that, Yazdajird left for Khurasan. When he
reached the boundary line of Maru he was met by its satrap
[marzuban] Mahawaih * with great honor and pomp. Here
he was also met by Nizak Tarkhan who offered him some-
thing to ride upon, gave him presents and entertained him
bountifully. Nizak spent one month with Yazdajird, after
which he left him. He then wrote Yazdajird asking for the
hand of his daughter. This aroused the anger of Yazda-
jird, who said, " Write and tell him ' Thou art nothing but
one of my slaves ; how darest thou then ask for my daugh-
ter's hand? ' " Yazdajird also ordered that Mahawaih, the
satrap of Maru, give an account and be asked about the 316
money he had collected. Mahawaih wrote to Nizak, insti-
gating him against Yazdajird and saying, " This is the one
who came here as a runaway fugitive. Thou hast helped
him in order to have his kingdom restored to him ; but see
what he wrote to thee ! " They both then agreed to put
him to death.
Yazdajird slain. Nizak led the Turks to al-Junabidhs
where he met the enemy. At first the Turks retreated,
but then the tide turned against Yazdajird, his followers
1 Cf. Michel le Syrien, Chronique, vol. ii, p. AM (ed. Chabot).
•Tha'alibi, p. 743: "Mahawait".
1 Yunabidh, Yunawid or Kunabidh. ItfaHm, p. 273; Baufcal, p. 324;
Mufeaddasi, p. 321.
492 THE ORIGINS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE
were killed, his camp was plundered, and he fled to the city
of Maru. The city refused to open its gates ; so he had to
dismount at a miller's house standing on the bank of al-
Mirghab.1 Some say that having heard of that, Mahawaih
sent his messenger who killed him in the miller's house.
Others assert that Mahawaih incited the miller and, by his
orders, the miller killed Yazdajird, after which M&hawaih
said, " No slayer of a king should be kept alive ", and he
ordered that the miller himself be put to death. Still others
claim that the miller offered Yazdajird food, which he ate,
and drink, which intoxicated him. In the evening, Yazda-
jird took out his crown and put it on his head. Seeing that,
the miller coveted the possession of the crown, and raising
a mill-stone dropped it on Yazdajird. After killing him,
he took his crown and clothes and threw the body into the
water. When the news came to Mahawaih, he put the
miller and his family to death and took the crown and
clothes. According to another story, Yazdajird was warned
against the messengers of Mahawaih and fled away, jump-
ing into the water. When the miller was asked about him,
he said, " The man has left my house." They found Yaz-
dajird in the water, and he said, " If ye spare me I will give
you my belt, ring and crown." He asked them for some
money with which he could buy bread, and one of them gave
him 4 dirhams. Seeing that, Yazdajird laughingly said,
" I was told that I will some day feel the need of 4 dir-
hams ! " Later he was attacked by certain men sent after
him by Mahawaih, and he said, " Kill me not ; rather carry
me to the king of the Arabs, and I will make terms with
him on your and my behalf, and thus ye will be safe."
They refused and choked him by means of a bow-string.
1 or Marghab or Murghab, also called Nahr Mara. Tabari, vol i, p.
2872 ; Baukal, p. 315.
THE DEATH OF YAZDAJIRD 493
His clothes they carried away in a pouch; and his body
they threw away into the water.1
Fairus taken away by the Turks. It is claimed that Fai-
ruz ibn-Yazdajird fell into the hands of the Turks, who
gave him one of their women in marriage; and he settled
among them.
1 Cf. Tha'alibi, pp. 74^-747; Tabari, vol i, pp. 2Q79-2881.
INDEX
Aban b. Said, 124. 162, 174
Aban b. OJthman, 82
Aban b. al-Walid, 294
Ab&n b. Yafeya, 184
Abanain, 147
Abarwiz, 160, 277, 390, 441, 453,
455
'Abbas b. al-Walid, 263, 294
abu-1- 'Abbas as-Saffafc 104, 233,
256, 282, 300, 328, 361, 368, 445,
446
al-'Abbas b. 'Abd-al-Muttalib, 20,
49, 63, 69, B6, 124, 409
al-'Abbas b. Jaz', 226
al-'Abbas b. Muhammad. a88
al-'Abbas b. Zuf ar, 225
al-'Abbasiyah, 371
al-'Abbasiyah (built by Hizar-
mard), 369
'Abd-al-'Aziz b. Haiyan, 258
'Abd-al-'Aziz b. Hatim, 321
•Abd-al-'Aziz b. Marwan, 360, 362
'Abd-al-Bamid b. Yafrya, 368, 466
'Abd b. al-Julanda, 116, 118
'Abd-al-Kais, 120, 130
'Abd-al-Malik b. Marwan, 54, 59,
75, 82, 83, 135, 180, 192, 195, 202,
219, 220, 221, 226, 238, 247, 248,
m 250, 255, 282, 283, 294, 301,
321, 322, 341, 360, 383-385, 449,
450
'Abd-al- Malik b. Muslim, 324
'Abd-al-Malik b. Salty, 203, 238,
262, 289
'Abd-al-Malik b. Shabib, 21
'Abd-al-Masih b. 'Amr, 390
'Abd-al-Masifc b. Bukailah, 435
'Abd-al-Muflalib, 60, 7?
'Abd-ar-Rafcmin b. 'Auf, 34, 424
'Abd-ar-'Rabman b. abi-Bakr, 135,
356
'Abd-ar-Rafrmin b. Ghanm, 224
'Abd-ar^Rattmin b. tfabib, 367, 368
'Abd-ar-Rafeman b. Isbajc, 446
'Abd-ar-Rabman b. Muhammad,
104, 455, 465
'Abd-ar-Rafrman b. Zaid, 356
'Abd-as-Samad b. 'Ali, 25
'Abd-al- Wahhab b. Ibrahim, 291-
292 293
'Abd-al- Wafcid b. al-Harith, 283
banu-'Abd-ad-Dar, 78, 81
•Abdallah b. 'Abbas, 30
'Abdallah b. 'Abd-al-A'la, 396
'Abdallah b. 'Abd-al-Malik, 255,
289
'Abdallah b. 'Abdallah, 129, 139
'Abdallah b. 'Ali, 193, 233, 300,
455
'Abdallah b. 'Amir, 490
'Abdallah b. 'Amr, 216, 217, 338,
352, 356, 358
'Abdallah b. Bishr, 237
'Abdallah b. Budail, 485-487, 490
'Abdallah b. Darraj, 450, 454
'Abdallah b. abi-Farwah, 397
'Abdallah b. al-BabJiab, 367
'Abdallah b. gadhaf, 127
'Abdallah b. al-^arith b. Kais, 139
'Abdallah b. al-Barith b. Naufal,
82
'Abdallah b. Hasan, 446
'Abdallah b. tfatim, 321
'Abdallah b. Hudhifah, 341, 347,
453
'Abdallah b. Kais, 375
495
496
INDEX
•Abdallah b. Khalid, 74
'Abdallih b. Mas'ud, 133, 143, 427,
431-432, 477
'Abdallah b. Musa, 366
'Abdallah b. ar-Rabi', 105
'Abdallih b. Rawahah, 44, 47, 48
'Abdallah b. Sa'd, 337, 340, 350-
351, 356-359, 379-380
'Abdallih b. Site', 80
'Abdallih b. Sufyin, 83
'Abdallih b. Suhail, 129
'Abdallih b. Tahir, 256, 283, 289
'Abdallih b. 'Umar, see b. 'Umar
'Abdallih b. Wahb, 140
'Abdallih b. Zaid b. 'Abdallih, 120
'Abdallih b. Zaid b. 'Asim, 135, 140
'Abdallih b. Zaid b. Tha'labah, 135
'Abdallih b. az-Zubair b. al-
'Auwim, 74, 75, 76, 82, 219, 220,
247, 289, 322, 337, 356, 360
'Abdallah b. az-Zubair b. 'Abd-al-
Muttalib, 174
umm-' Abdallih, 311
'Abidin, 232
al-Abni', 160-162
Abyssinia (al-tJabashah), 49, 118
Acre ['Akka], 179, 180, 181, 220
'Adan, 107
Adhanah, 260
Adharbaijin, 319, 321, 324, 328,
472,483
Adhramah, 281
Adhri'it, 105, 193, 214-215
Adhruh, 92-94, 105
'Adi b. 'Adi, 322
'Adi b. Artit, 118
'Adi b. &itim, 141, 432
'Adi b. Zaid, 446
Aflah b. 'Abd-al-Wahhib, 371
al-Aghlab b. Salim, 369-370, 375
Ahmad b. Muhammad, 375
al-Ahnaf b. Kais, 485, 487
al-Ahwiz, 139, 449, 455, 479, 487
al-Ahwiz, 283, 485
Ailah, 92-94, 105, 166
'Ain al-Jamal, 461, 462
'Ain ar-Rabbah, 463
'Ain ar-Rumiyah, 281-282
'Ain as-§aid, 461, 462-463
'Ain as-Sallaur, 228
'Ain Shams, 341
'Ain at-Tamr, 30, 96, 169, 218, job,
392, 394-400, 407
'Ain al-Wardah, s. v. Ra's al-'Ain
'Ain Zarbah, 264
al-'Ain al-Hamigah, 275
'A'ishah, daughter of Hisham, 2&z
'A'ishah ("the Mother of the Be-
lievers"), 21, 26, 40, 51, 70, 75.
135, 144
'A'ishah b. Numair, 30
Aiyub b. abi-Aiyub, 184
abu-Aiyub Khalid, 19, 237
umm-Aiyub, 447
Ajamat Burs, 433
Ajnadin (Ajnidain), 1 74-1 75, 183,
208, 215, 2x6
Ajyid, 81
'Akabat Baghris, 258
'Akabat an-Nisi\ 258-259
al-'Afcifc 20, 27, 28, 39
'Akk, 31, 32
b. al-'Akki, 370
'Akubah, 357
al-'Ali' b. 'Abdallih, 120, 121, 122,
123, 124, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131.
• 137
al-'Ali' b. Ahmad, 331
al-'Ali' b. Wahb, 481-482
Aleppo [tJalab], 207, 224-226, 229
Alexandretta [Iskandarunah], 249,
253
Alexandria [al-Iskandariyah], 228,
338, 340. 344, 346-351, 352
'Ah b. Hisham, 488-489
'Ali b. al-Husain, 344
'AH b. Sulaiman, 280, 296, 297
INDEX
497
'Ali b. abi-TaKb, 29, 52, 54, 62, 67,
94, ioi, 103, 286, 321, 3M, 358,
409, 423, 426, 432, 463, 479
4AH b. Yafcya, 263
'Alkamah b. 'Ulithah, 197
Alusah, 279
Alyunah, 336, 338, 33ft 347
'Amawas [Emmaus], 213, 215, 270
Amid, 275, 278, 288
'Amir b. Fuhairah, 26
'Amir b. abi-Wakkas, 176, 208
abu-'Amir al-Ash'ari, 85
abu-'Amir ar-Rahib, 16, 17
banu-'Amir b. Sa'sa'ah, 147
'Amk Mar'ash, 294, 295, 296
4Am)s: Tizin, 249, 250
'Amrnar b. Yasir, 279, 425, 427, 431,
440, 469, 47i, 481
'Ammuriyah, 225, 254, 258, 299
'Amr b. 'Abdallah, 118, 119
'Amr b. al-'A$i, 116, 117, 118, 140,
147, 165-167, 178, 179, 186, 201,
213, 215, 216, 217, 219, 335-345,
346-351, 352-353, 355, 358, 379,
38o
'Amr b. IJazm, 107, 108
'Amr b. tfuraith, 436, 476
•Amr b. al-Jarud, 133
'Amr b. Ma'dikarib, 183, 185, 412,
413, 415, 420, 439
'Amr b. Mu'iwiyah, 321
'Amr b. Mud ad, 81
'Amr b. Sa'id al-Ashdak, 184
'Amr b. Said b. al-'Asi, 58, 174,
247
'Amr b. Salim, 60, 61
'Amr b. Umaiyah, 34
'Amr b. IJtbah, 421
'Amr b. az-Zubair, 29
banu-'Amr b. 'Auf, 16
banu-'Amr b. Lu'ai, 135
banu-'Amr b. Mu'awiyah, 153, 156-
157
abu-'Amrah, 396
Anas b. Malik, 48, 396
Anas b. Sirin, 396
'Anat, 279, 284
al-Anbar, 32, 279, 394-395, 432, 433,
434, 445, 449, 488
'Anbasah b. Sa'id, 184, 442
al-Andalus [Andalusia], 355, 365-
372
b. al-Andarz'azz, 402
'Ans, 159
Antabulus, 342, 352
Anfartus, 205
Antioch [Anfakiyah], 175, 176,
180, 189, 202, 207, 209, 211, 213,
226-231, 246, 248, 249, 250, 253,
254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 263,
336
Anushirwan, 306-308, 324-325, 403,
453,454
al-'Arabah, 168
al-'Arabaya, 460
Arabia, 13, 103
'Arafah, 61, 62, 77
'Arijin, 231
Arakah (Arak), 171
'Arandal, 193
Arashah, of the Bali, 362, 397
'Arbassus, 241, 242
Ardabil, 323, 328
al-Arhadiyah, 28
'Arib b. 'Abd-Kulal, 109
al-'Arim, s. v. Sudd
al-'Arish, 335
Arjil al-Kubra, 329
Arjil as-Sughra, 329
Arjish, 305, 313
Armaniyakus, 305, 309, 310
Armenia, 207, 231, 275, 300, 305-332
Arran, 305, 306, 3", 318, 319, 332
al-'Arsah, 30
Artahal, 318
Arwa, daughter of 'Abd-al-MutU-
Ub, 174
abu-Arwa ad-Dausi, 166
498
INDEX
Arwad, 376
Arzan, 275
Asad b. 'Abdallah, 445
abu-1-Asad, 455, 456
banu-Asad b. Khuzaimah, 145, 148,
278
al-Asbadhi, 120
Asbanbur, 434
Asbina, 431, 432
al-Ash'ath b. Kais b. Ma'dikarib,
I53-I58» 208, 2ii, 321, 412, 4»,
433, 472, 475
b. al-Ash'ath, 104
al-Ashban [Spaniards], 365
Ashnis, 460
Ashush, 314
Ashut b. tJamzah, 331
Asia Minor [Bilad ar-Rum, By-
zantine Empire], 195, 207, 209,
23a, 239, 253, 254, 260, 261, 263,
284, 285, 280, 290, 294, 296, 298,
299, 3IO, 384
Asid b. Zifir, 325
'A§im b. Murrah, 484
'Asim b. Ilmar, 356
'Askalan, 219, 221-222
al-Aswad al-'Ansi, 156, 159-162
'Attab b. Asid, 66, 87
al-Aus, 33
Aulas, 85
'Auwam b. 'Abd-Shams, 415
al-Auza'i, 71, 114, 190, 214, 240,
242, 243, 286
al-'Awasim, 202-203, 223-234, 253,
301
Azadbih, 390
al-Azd, 31, 32, 33f n6, 117, 390,
405, 442
Azdisat, 314
'Azrah b. Kais, 469
Bab Barikah, 306-307
Bab al-Fil, 446-447
Bab al-Lal, 318
I Bab al-Lan, 306, 307, 325, 32S
Bab Samsakhi, 307
Bab ash-Sham, 282, 447
al-Bab wa-1-Abwab, 306, 319, 324,
325, 327, 328
al-Bab ash-Sharki, 186, 187, 189,
190
Babil, 422, 432
Badham, 161
Bi<ji', 414
Badlis, 275, 331
Badr, 129
Baduraiya, 408, 458
Baghdad (Baghdadh, or Madinat
as-Salam), 262, 263, 280, 282,
288, 305, 445, 446, 447, 457-464.
482,484
Baghras, 228, 258
Baghrawand, 305
al-Babrain, 120- 131, 140
Bahrain Jur, 446
Bahurasir, 417, 428, 434
al-Bailakan, 306, 318, 321, 322, 323,
328,329
Baisan, 179
Bait 'Ainun, 197
Bait Jabrin, 213
Bait Lihya, 200
Bait Mama, 245
Bait Ras, 179
Bajarma, 422
Bajarwan, 328
Bajilah, 405, 407, 424-425
Bajuddah, 272
Bajunais, 305, 313
al-Bak, 331
Bakkar b. Muslim, 329
Bakr b. Wa'il, 120, 388, 395
abu-Bakr b. Muhammad, 71
abu-Bakr as-Siddik, 20, 26, 28, 34.
38, 39, 46, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 61,
73, 84, 96, 101, 107, 112, 117, 124,
127, 128, 129, 130, 134, 136, 137,
141, 143-150, 153-155, 160, 162.
INDEX
499
165-167, 169, 175, 213, 218, 375,
387, 38ft 393, 397, 398
banu-Bakr, 61
abu-Bakrah b. Masruh, 85
Ba'labakk, 171, 180, 198, 201, 228,
236, 245, 247, 251
al-Balanjar, 319, 320, 415
al-Balasajin, 319
Baldah, 204
Balis, 231-233
al-Balka*, 173, 193, W
Bana, 342
al-Bandanijain, 421
Banikiya, 392-394, 4&3, 404
Bara' b. Malik, 130, 131
al-Baradin, 399
Barah, 371
Bardha'ah, 305, 318, 319, 320, 321,
322, 324, 3^5, 329
Bank, 184
Barkah (in Africa), 352-354, 360,
371
Barr b. Kais, 353
al-Barriyah, 281
al-Barshaliyah, 307
Barusma, 402
Barzah, 186
abu-Barzah-1-Aslami, 66
al-Basharudat, 342
Bashir b. al-Audab, 158
Bashir b. Sa'd, 392, 398
al-Basrah, 82, 114, 116, 117, 118,
124, 139, 151, i&>, 228, 264, 300,
375, 388, 396, 405, 410, 4", 436,
437, 441, 449, 455, 471, 476, 490
al-Bata'ifc, 264, 452, 453-456
al-Bathaniyah, 193
Batihan, Bathin or Buftan, 22, 25,
Wadi— 26
Batn Marr, 32
al-Batrik b. an-Naka, 220
al-Ba'udah, 149
Bawizij al-Anbar, 395
Bawazij al-Mulk, 422
Bazabda, 275
Bazalit, 318
al-Bazzak, 451
Beirut, 194
Berbers, 123, 253-254, 360, 361, 366,
368,369
Bihjawarsin, 487
al-Bihkubadhat, 428
Bikrat b. Ashut, 289
Bilal, 26
Bilhit, 340
al-Bima, 351
Bishr b. Maimun, 282, 459
Bisfar b. Safwan, 366, 367
Bistam, 416
Bistam b. Narsi, 422
Biyamand, 490
Bugha (a freedman of al-Mu'ta-
sim), 319
Bugha-1-Kabir, 331-332
al-Bujah, 381, 382
Buka, 229, 246, 250, 259
Bufcailah, 392
Bukh, 309
Bukrat b. Ashut, 331
Bulunyas, 205
Burin, 406
Burs, 410, 416
Busbuhra b. Saluba, 392-393, 421
al-Busfurrajan, 305, 307, 313, 315,
331
Bushair b. Yasar, 45, 46, 47
Busir, 342
Busr b. abi-Artat, 172, 356, 357, 358
Busra, 171, 172, 173, 193, 234
al-Butah, 149
Butnan $abib, 229
al-Buwaib, 406
Buwailis, 232
al-Buwairah, 36
Buzikhah, 144, 145, 147
Byzantine Empire, 1. v. Asia Minor
5°°
INDEX
Constantine [£ustantin b. Alyun],
2B7, 290-291, 293, 299
Constantine, son of Heraclius, 347
Constantinople, 179, 207, 209, 347,
376
Copts, 339, 340, 343, 343, 344, 346,
347,383
Cordova [Kurtubah], 365
Crete [Ikri^ish], 376
Cyprus [Kubrus], 180, 235-243
Dabba, 117
banu-Dabbah, 397
Dabifc^o* 295
Dabil, 30S, 312, 314-315, 321. 330
Dadhawaih, i6it 162
ag-Dabfcak b. Kais, s. v. al-Afenaf
ad-Dahhak al-Khariji, 328
Dailam, 441
ad-Dailaxn, 441
Dair al-AVar, 406, 443
Dair Hind, 406, 443
Dair al-Jamajim, 431, 443
Dair Ka'b, 417, 443
Dair Khalid, 186, 198
Dakufca, 422
Damalu, 263-264
Damascus [Dimastyc], 167, 172,
173, 176, 178, 182, 183, 186-199,
200, 201, 202, 216, 217, 219, 301,
320, 366, 480
Damirah, 342
Dar al-'Ajalah, 80-81
Dar al-Kawarir, 78, 80-81
Dar an-Nadwah, 80-81
Dara, 275
Darauliyah, 255
Darb al-tf adath, 295, 296, 298
ad-Darb (Darb Baghras), 210, 254
abu-ad-Darda' TJwaimir, 186, 216,
217
Darin, 129, 130
Darusat,45°
Dasht al-Warak, 313
ad-Daskarah, 421
Dastaba, 479
Dastutnaisan, 454
Dathin, 167
Da'tid b/Ali, 456
ad-Daukarah, 450
abu-Dharr al-Ghifari, 237
abu-Dhu'aib Khuwailid, 356
Dbufafab b. TJmair, 324
Diduna, 317
Dijlah (district), 259
Dijlah, see Tigris
Dijlat al-Ba$rahf 368, 453
Dikahlah, 342
Dimyat, 342
Dinar, 475-476
Dinar b. Dinar, 294
ad-Dinawar, 305, 4&9, 4?6, 478-
480,483
Dirar b. al-Azwar, 149, 393. 394.
415
Diyar Mucjar, 278
Diyar Rabi'ah, 278, 281
ad-Dubbiyah (ad-Dibiyah), 168
banu-Dudan, 306
ad-Dudaniyah, 306, 318, 32B
abu-Dujanah Simak, 35, 36, Z7,
135, 139
abu-Dulaf al-Kasim, 488
Duluk, 202, 231, 297
Dumat al-Uirah, 96, 97, 400
Dumat al-Jandal, 95-97, 171
Duraid b. a§-Stmmah, 85
ad-<Durdhu{dyah, 306
Duma, 389, 401
ad-Dustan, 244
Egypt (Mi;r), 20, 180, 191. 215.
216, 335-345, 351, 352, 353, 35*
358, 359, 360, 371, 372, 379, 381.
383
Euphrates [al-Furat], 232,279*284.
285, 293, 3", 403, 406, 410, 428,
432f 443, 445, 451, 453, 45*
INDEX
SOI
Fadak, 37, 50-56, 58
Fafjalah b. TJbaid, 237
al-Fadhandtm, 460
al-Fadl b. al-' Abbas, 215
al-Fadl b. Karin, 206
al-Fa<jl b. Rau&, 369
al-Fa^l b. Yafcya, 330
al-Fadusafan, 486
Faid, 389, 405
Fairuz (dihfcan), 422
Fairuz b. ad-Dailami, 160-162
Fairuz b. Jushaish, 129
Fairuz b. Yazdajird, 493
al-Faiytim, 341
Fakh, 79
Fakhitah, daughter of 'Amir, 129
Fakhitah, daughter of Karazah,
al-Falalij, 394, 421
al-Fallujatain, 407
Famiyah, 201-202
al-Farafisah-1-Kalbiyah, 29
Faraj b. Sulaim, j. v. abu-Sulaim
Faranjah [France], 366
al-Farazdak, 450
al-Farma', 335
Farrukhbundadh, 392
Farwah b. Iyas, 390
Farwah b. Musaik, 160
abu-Farwah 'Abd-ar-Rafcman, 397
umm-Farwah, 155
al-Fasilah, 229
Fatfmafa, 52, 53, 54, 55, 6x, 90
al-Faawarah, 175
abu-1-Fawaris, 262
banu-Fazarah, 146
Flhl, 176-177, 216
Filan, 309, 324, 227
al-Fuja'ah, 149, 158
Fukair, 29
Furat b. ljaiyan, 141
al-Furu', 28, 29
al-Fustat, 335, 336, 341, 347, 350
al-Ghabah, 24
al-Ghabah (the city of), 130
Ghabat b. Hubairah, 262
umm-Ghadban, 128
al-Ghaxnr, 147-148
al-Ghamr b. Yazid, 282
banu-jGhanm b. 'Auf, 17
Ghassan, 32, 83, 96, 172, 209, 254,
442
Ghatafan, 144, 148
Ghazzah, 168, 213
Ghtimik, 323
Ghurabah, 141
Ghurah, 141
Habbar b. Sufyan, 174
tfabib b. 'Abd-ar-Rahman, 368
IJabib b. Maslamah, 208, 227, 229,
231, 241, 246, 273, 275, 287, 289,
296, 298, 309, 31 i-3i$, 320-321
tfabib b. Zaid, 135, 140
umm-Eabib as-Sahba', 169
banu-IJabibah, 93, 94
umm-tJabibah, 208
Qabtar, 128
al-Hadi, s. v. Musa
al-JJadikah, 135, 141
ljadir ljalab, 224-225
ljadir Kinnasrin, 223
9&dir Taiyi\ 224-225
al-tfadithah, 280
Radithat al-Mausil, 288, 311
al-^adrah, 381
tfadramaut, 107, 112, 153, 156, 157
5afs b. abi-l-'Asi, 125
abu-tfafs 'Umar b. 'tsa, 376
Gaidar b. Kawus, 330
al-^a'ir, 460
abu-1-Haitham Malik, 50
abu-1-Haiyaj al-Asadi, 435
Hajar, no, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124
tfajar, 151
al-tfajjaj b. 'Atik, 437
al-tfajjaj b. al-tfanth, 175
502
INDEX
al-Bajjaj b. Yusuf, 75, 76, 104,
no, ii2f 250, 259, 366, *£, 431,
433, 449-450, 452, 454, 455, 456,
465, 466, 484
Hakam b. Sa'd al-'Ashirab, 32
al-Qakam b. Mas'ud, 404
umm-Hakim, 182
Halab as-Sajur, 231
Hamadhan, 410, 471, 481-484, 438
Hamah, 201-202
Hamdin, 109, 160, 444
Hammad al-Barbari, 78, 81
al-Hammarin, 82
Hamra' Dailam, 441
Hamzah b. 'Abd-al-Mutfalib, 80,
135
Hamzah b. Malik, 297
Hamzah b. an-Nu'man, 58
Hamzin, 323, 326
Hani' b. Kabisah, 390
al-Hani wa-1-Mari, 280-281
nmm-Hani', 52
banu-Hanifah, 133, 134, 135, 136
Hanzalah, b. ar-Rabi', 394
Hanzalah, b. Safwan, 367
banu-Hanzalah, 149, 150
al-Harajah, 112
al-Harak, 313
al-Haram, 70, 72, 73, 75, 76, 77,
82,84
nmm-Haram, 235, 237
Harim b. Haiyan, 490
Harish, 369-370
al-tfarith b. 'Abd-Kulal, 109
al-Harith b. 'Amr, 322
al-Harith b. al-Hakam, 356
al-Harith b. Hani', 443
al-Harith b. al-Harith, 175
al-Harith b. Hisham, 175, 215
al-flarith b. Khalid, 83
al-Harith b. abi-Shimr, 209
Harithah b. Tha'labah, 33
banu-Harithah, 24
al-Harnaniyah, 272
al-Harrah, 21, 22, 27, 30, 396
Harran, 272-274, 282, 291
Harthamah b. A'yan, 221, 261, 262,
370
Harun ar-Rashid, 78, 81, 83, 105,
117, 202, 221, 224, 233, 238, 244,
252, 257, 260, 261, 263, 264, 280,
282, 283, 293, 297-298, 299, 300,
370, 376, 459, 460, 483
abu-Harun as-Sulami, 280
al-Haruniyah, 264
Hasan b. Hasan b. 'Ali, 463
al-Hasan b. 'AH, 49, 99, 155
al-Hasan b. 'Ali-1-Badhaghisi, 330
al-Hasan b. Kafetabah, 261, 288,
292, 295, 296, 329
al-Hasan b. 'Umar, 281
Hashim b. Subabah, 6/
Hashim b. 'Utbah, 208, 420-422,
469
al-Hashimiyah, 300, 445-446
Hasmadan, 322
Hassan b. Mahawaih, 258
Hassan b. Malik, 190
Qfassan an-Nabatf, 454, 455
Hassan b. an-Nu'man, 360
Hassan b. Thabit, 36, 188, 218
Hatim b. an-Nu'man, 321, 322
abu-Hatim as-Saddarati, 369
Haudhah b. 'Ali, 132, 133
abu-1-Haul, 184
Hauran, 173, 193, 197
Hawarih, 317
Hawazin, 85
Heraclius [Hirakl], 174, 175, 176,
177, 179, 182, 189, 200, 207, 210.
211, 253, 254, 344
Hibal b. Khuwailid, 145
Hibra, 197
al-HiJaz, 3i, 50, 57, 59, "2, 114,
157, 165, 168, 261, 286, 353, 381,
389
Hilal b. 'Akkah, 398
Hilal b. Daigham, 260
INDEX
S03
Hilil b. IJllafah, 415
JJima an-NaJp', 23
Uima ar-Rabadhah, 23
al-Qimar, 210, 379
#im§ [Emcsa], 174, *75, 180, 198,
200-206, 211, 212, 216, 217, 223,
228, 270, 275, 294, 295, 301, 320
IJimyar, 108, 109
Hind, daughter of TJtbah, 207
Hind, daughter of Yamin, 155
al-tfirah, 32, 96, 97, 169, 388, 389,
390, 391, 302, 393, 394, 398, 400,
403, 404, 407, 410, 421, 437, 442,
444, 447, 462, 475
Hisham b. 'Abd-al- Malik, 83, 181,
238, 256, 258, 280, 282, 290, 323,
324, 325, 350, 36b, 366, 367, 45i,
454,488
Hisham b. al-'A§i, 147, 175
Qisn al-JJadath, 260, 282, 296-297
JJisn Kaludhiyah, 291, 293
Qisn Kamkh, 287-288, 291
JJisn Malikiya, 408
5isn Mansur, 299-300
JJisn Maridin, 275
Bisn Salman, 230
al- jjisn b. Ma*bad, 407
Hit, 279, 280, 463
tfiyar bani-1-Ka'fca', 225-226
JJubabah, 155
al-JJubal, 141
IJubash b. Kais, 210
al-IJudaibiyah, 45, 49, 60
Qudhaifah b. Milisan, 117, 399-400
ljudhaifah b. al-Yaman, 320, 427,
430, 449, 472, 474, 475, 476, 477
abu-ljudhaifah b. al-Mughirah, 74
abu-Eudhaifah b. IJtbah, 138
al-Hudhail b. Kais, 488
tfujair, 138
$ujr b. 'Adi, 420, 470
abu-1-tfukaifc 43, 47
IJukaim b. Sa'd, 443
tfulwan, 420, 421, 469-470, 471,
480,400
JJumaid b. Ma'yuf, 238, 376
Qumran b. Aban, 396
JJunain, 66, 85, 86
abu-Hurairah (ad-Dausi), 22, 30,
63, 64, 124, 125, 126
Quraith b. 'Abd-al- Malik, 96
JJurkus b. an-Nu'man, 170
Hurmuz (village), 431
al-Hurmuz, 314
b. Hurmuz al-A'raj, 350
al-Hurmuzan, 472
Hurmuz jarad, 389
al-IJusaid, 169
tfusaii [JJisl] b. Jabir, 477
IJusain b. Muslim, 263
al-tfusain b. 'Ali, 49, 99, 344, 393.
479
al-^usain al-Khadim, 283
al-JJusain b. Muhammad, 112
al-IJusain b. Numair, 74, 75
al-Qutam, 127, 128
al-ljuwairith b. Nufeaidh, 67
Quwarin, 171
IJuyai b. Akhtab, 41, 43, 44
Ibrahim (son of the Prophet), 35,
344
Ibrahim b. 'Abdallah, 446, 455, 457
Ibrahim b. al-Aghlab, 370, 371
Ibrahim b. al-Mahdi, 228
Ibrahim b. Said, 228
Ibrahim b. Salamah, 446
Idris b. Ma'kil, 488
Ifrikiyah, 337, 352, 355, 356-361,
362, 3^6, 367, 368, 369, 370
Ikhmim, 340-341
'Ikrimah b. abi-Jahl, 117, 155, 174
Ilyas b. Qabib, 368
'Imran b. Mujalid, 371
al-'Irak, 29, 79, 96, 102, 104, 129,
146, 155, 158, 167, 230, 231, 247,
261, 286, 387, 389, 391, 393, 401,
405, 406, 409, 415, 432, 433, 454,
465,488
'Irfcah, 194
504
INDEX
'Isa b. 'Ali, 395, 452, 463
'Isa b. Idris, 488
Isa b. Ja'far, 117
Isbahan, 365, 469, A7h 47*, 485-489,
490
al-Isbidhahar, 475
Isfrafc b. Ibrahim, 462
Isfrafc b. Ismail, 330, 332
Isfcak b. Muslim, 323, 328
Ismail b. 'Abdallah, 366
Istakhr, 490
Iyad, 169, 254, 443
'Iyad b. Ghanm, 215, 216, 226, 227,
229, 230, 231, 269-27^ 289, 296,
313
Iyas b. Kabisah, 390
al-Jabal, 1. v. al-Jibal
Jabal al-Ahwaz, 437
jabal al-Kabalp, 309
Jabalah, 204, 205
Jabalah b. al-Aiham, 207-210, 254
Jaban, 389-390, 394, 401
al-Jabiyah, 172, 186, 187, 188, 189,
190, 198, 214, 233
Jabr b. abi-IJbaid, 404
Jabril b. Yafcya, 257
Jabrin, 230
Jadhimah, 150
Ja'far, 38
Ja'far b. Sulaiman, 21, 76, 233
abu- Ja'far, s. v. al-Mansur
umm-Ja'far Zubaidah, s. v. Zu-
baidah
Jaf rabid, 487
Jai, 485, 487, 488
Jaifar, b. al-Julanda, 116, 118
Jaihan, 256, 293, 29S
al-Jalinus, 401, 414, 416
Jalula', 419, 420-433, 4°9
Jamil b. Busbuhra, 421
al-Janad, 107
al-Janb> 454
al-Jar, 341
al-Jarajimah, 246-252, 258
Jarash, 179
al-Jarba', 92-94
al-Jardaman, 307, 318
Jarir b. 'Abdallah, 159, 160, 389,
392, 393, 395, 405-407, 421, 424,
425, 432, 409, 470, 472, 481
Jarjaraya, 398
al-Jarrab b. 'Abdallah, 317, 322-
323
Jarshan, 309, 324
Jau Kurakir, 148
al-Jaulan, 179
Ja'wanah b. al-IJarith, 290, 323
al-Jazirah, s. v. Mesopotamia
Jerusalem [Bait al-Mufcaddas,
Iliya'J, 15, 30, 182, 213-214, 217,
227, 300, 3P9
al-Jibal or al-Jabal, 319, 324, 325,
393, 420, 449, 480, 482, 484, 4ft
489
Jidh', 32
al-Jifshish al-Kindi, 154
Jisr Manbijf 232, 275
Jisr al-Walid, 259-260
al- Jisr, 399, 403-404, 406. Cf. $uss
an-Nafif
Jordan [al-Urdunn], 167, 176, 17&-
181, 193, 201, 202, 216, 217, 244.
301
Jubail, 194
Judham, 92, 207, 218
al-Juhaf w-al-Juraf, 82
Juhainah, 184, 441
al-Junabidh, 491
Junadah b. abi-Umaiyah, 375-376
Jurash, 91
al-Jurf, 28, 39, 114, 165, 218
Jurhum, 31, 32, 74
al-Jurjumah, 247, 240, 250
Jurna, 314
Jurwah al-Yamami, 477
Jurzan, 305, 306, 315, 316, 317, 33°.
332
INDEX
505
Juwatha, 127, 128, 129, 140
Ka'b al-Eabr, 237
Kabalah, 306, 319
Kadas, 179
al-Kadisiyah, &?], 404, 408, 409-
416, 417-418, 424. 434, 43ft 440,
441,462
Kafarbaiya, 256, 257
Kafarjadda, 282
Kafarmara, 397
Kafartfs, 349
Kafartutha, 281
al-Kahinah, 360
Kainuka', 33
al-^airawin, 357, 358, 361, 362,
367, 368, 369, 370, 37i
Kais b. Hubairah, 160-162, 411
Kais b. Makhramah, 396
Kais b. Makshuh, 208, 414, 415
Kais b. Sa'd, 358
Kais b. Sakan, 116
Kaisariyah, 216-220, 335
banu-1-Ka'ka', 225-226
Kalarjit, 318
Kalb, 170, 391, 395
Kalikala, 289, 305, 309-310, 312-
313, 320
Kalthum b. Hidm, 15
Kalwadha, 408
al-Kamibaran, 306, 319
Kanatfr an-Nu'man, 479
Kanisat as-Sulli, 263
al-Kanisat as-Sauda', 264
dhu-Kar, 462
al-Karaj, 488
Jfarda, 275
Karkh Fairuz, 460, 461
Karkisiya, 171, 274, 275, 279, 281
Karman, 463, 486, 490
Karmasin, 469
Karraz an-Nukri, 130, 131
Karyat abi-Salabah, 443
al-Karyatain, 171
Kashin, 485-489
aJ-Kasim b. Rabi'ah, 321
Kasirin, 231-232
Kaskar, 259, 389, 402, 4°7, 453,
454,472
Kasr al-'Adasiyin, 391, 444
al-Ka^r al-Abyad, 371, 391
al-Ka§safa, 144, 145
Kastasji, 318
Katarghash, 258
Kathir b. Shihab, 416, 479, 480, 481
al-Katibah, 45, 46, 49
al-Katff, 124, 129
Katrabbul (or Kutrubbul), 400,
458
Katul Kisra, 461
al-Kitul, 460
Kafulah, 460
Kazwin, 441
Khabanjar, 483
Khabbab b. al-Aratt, 431, 432
al-Khabur, 279
Khaffan, 387, 390, 399
Khaibar, 37, 41, 42-49, 50, 51, 52,
57, 58, 337
al-Khais, 340
Khaizan, 319, 320, 323, 324
al-Khaizuran, 433
Khakan, 308, 319
Khakan al-Khadim, 483
Khakhit, 318, 325
Khalfun al-Barbari, 372
Khalid b. 'Abdallah, 437, 445, 450-
451
Khalid b. Malik, 159
Khalid b. Sa'id, 106, 107, 156, 160,
165, 166, 182, 183
Khalid b. Thabit, 214
Khalid b. 'Utnair, 324
Khalid b. 'Urfutah, 413, 416, 419,
432
Khalid b. al-Walid, 63, 64, 65, 95,
96, 97, "8, 128, 129, 134, 136,
137, 145, 147-150, 158, 167-168,
5°6
INDEX
169-172, 173, 174, 176, 178, 179,
186-191, 193, 198, 200, 223, 270,
277-278, 293, 387-400, 405
Khalid b. Yazid b. Mazyad, 330
Khalid b. Yazid b. Mu'awiyah, 383
Khalij Banat Na'ilah, 29
Khanijar, 422
Khanikin, 420, 421, 430
Kharijah b. tJisn, 144, 145, 148
Kharijah b. Qudhafah, 336, 341,
346
al-Khasharimah, 480
Khashram b. Malik, 480
Kfaashram as->Sulami, 327
b. Khatal al-Adrami, 66, 67
al-Khaft, 124, 129
Khaulan, 152, 157
Khauwat b. Jubair, 27
al-Khawarnak, 446
al-Khazar, 305, 306, 309, 3io, 319,
323, 324-327, 329
al-Khazraj, 19, 33
al-Khidrimah, 141
Khilat/275, 289, 305, 313, 322, 331
Khufash, 112
Khukhit, 318
Khumm, yyt 78
Khunan, 317
Khunasir b. 'Amr, 229
Khunasirah, 229
al-Khuraibah, 388
Kfauraim b. Aus, 392
Khurasan, 151, 205, 261, 262, 280,
292, 293, 297, 328, 368, 369, 446,
457, 459, 460, 484, 49i
Khurrazad, 420
Khurzad b. Mahibundadh, 399
al-Khustis, 256
Khutarniyah, 422
Khuza'ah, 33, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 240
Khuzaimah b. Khazim, 330
dhu-1-Kila1, 263
al-Kilab, 307, 324
banu-Kilab, 34
Kinanah, 60, 61
Kindah, 107, 153, 154, IS**, *57,
169, 2ii, 369
Kinnasrin, 202, 211, 213, 214, 217,
223*234, 254, 259, 270, 294, 296,
297,301
al-Kiryaun, 346, 349
Kisal, 317, 325
Kisra, 124, 129, 160, 390, 405, 406,
419, 430, 43i, 432
Ku'aiki'an, 81
$uba', 15, 16, 17, 18
Kubadh b. Fairuz, 305-306, 453
Kubakib, 292
Kubbash, 197
Kudamah b. Maz'un, 125
al-Kufah, 97, 102, 103, 104, 105,
133, 155, 169, 18a, 211, 212, 22^
279, 300, 310, 320, 388, 396, 405,
411, 415, 427, 434-448, 449, 450,
455, 457, 464, 469, 471, 472, 475,
476, 479, 480, 481, 482, 488
Sufruwit, 317
Kulthum b. 'Iyad, 360, 367
al-Kulzum, 358, 381
Kumis, 471
Kumm, 485-489
Kura 'Arabiyah, 53, 143
Kuraish, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 68,
74, 75, 77, 80, 86, 105, 112, 133,
475
banu-Kuraizah, 25, 40-41
Kurakir, 169, 170
Kurdbandadh, 434
Kurds, 319, 482
al-Kurr, 319, 323
Kurrah b. Hubairah, 147
Kurt b. Jatnmah, 407, 415
Kurtubah, see Cordova
Kurus, 202, 230
Kurz b. 'Alkamah, 84
umm-Kurz, 424
Kusai b. Kilab, 77t 80
Kusam, 171
INDEX
507
Kusan al-Artnani, 312
al-Kushan, 244
Kuss an-Natff, 403-404
Kutha, 408, 418, 422, 426
Kutham b. Ja'far, 54
al-Kutkutanah, 461
Kuwaifah, 434, 437
Labbah, 16
al-Ladhikiyah, 203-205
Laila (daughter of al-Judi), 96-97
Laila-1-Akhyaliyah, 484
b. abi-Laila, 71, 73, 8p, 90, 113, 114,
286
al-Laith b. Sa'd, 238
Lakhm, 92, 207, 362, 443
LakH b. Malik, 117
al-Lakz, 309, 322, 326, 327
Liran, 309, 324
Ludd [Lydda], 213, 220
dhat-al-Lujum, 314-315
Luwatah, 353-354
Ma'ab, 173
Ma'arrat Misrin, 229
Ma'arrat an-Nu'man, 202
Ma'bad b. al-' Abbas, 356, 359
al-Mad&'in, 262, 416, 417-419, 420,
421, 430, 434, 435, 437, 441-442,
446, 449, 462, 490
al-Madhar, 389, 405
Madharan, 48a
Madhfcij, 16b, 183, 323
Madh'ur b. 'Adi, ^7
al-Ma'din, 381
al-Madinah, 15, 27, 30, 33, 54, 57,
61, 80, 8i, 84, 117, 124, 127, 129,
136, 144, 146, 155, 158, 162, 165,
184, 208, 214, 270, 341, 350, 356,
387, 391, 410, 4", 440, 451, 462,
472,477
Madinat as-Salam, s. v. Baghdad
al-Mafazah, 484
al-Maghrib, 256, 335-345, 349, 352-
353, 356, 358, 359, 3«, 367, 368,
369, 370, 371, 372, 396
Magians, no, 118, 120, 121, 123,
130, 314, 424, 44i
Man al-Basrah [Nihawand], 476,
482
Mah Dinar, 476
Mah al-Kufah [ad-Dinawar] , 476
al-Mahain, 471, 480
Mahawaih, 491, 402
al-Mahdi, 21, 76, 184, 223, 252,
257, 260, 261, 263, 264, 280, 295,
296, 297, 300, 381, 429, 433, 45i,
457, 459, 482, 483
al-Mahdiyah, 297
Mahrubah, 226
Mahrudh, 421
al-Mahuzah, 461
Maimadh, 324
Maimun (village), 451
Maimun b. Qamzah, 282
Maimun al-Jurjumani, 248
al-Maimun (canal), 451
Maisarah b. Masru^c, 254, 270
Maiyafarikin, 275
Majaz al-Andalus, 365
MaTql b. Yasir, 472, 473
Makkah, 15, 16, 19, 21, 27, 32, 33,
47, 60-76, 77-8i, 82-83, 86, 87,
88, 129, 146, 165, 184, 240, 451,
457,459
Makna, 92-94
al-MaVsalat, 188, 190
Malatyah, 287, 288, 289-293, 297,
312
Malik b. 'Abdallah, 298
Malik b. Anas, 238
Malik al-Ashtar, 254, 358
Malik b. 'Auf, 85, 101
Malik b. Murarah, 107, 108
Malik b. Nuwairah, 140-150
al-Ma'mun, 54, 56, 83, 141, 209,
233, 256, 257, 281, 289, 299, 330,
376, 446, 4&>, 484, 488
5o8
INDEX
Manbij, 202, 203, 231, 293, 298
Mandal al-'Anazi, 261, 296
Manjalis, 316, 317
Mansur b. Ja'wanah, 299-300
Mansur b. al-Mahdi, 228
al-Mansur, 76, 78, 238, 251, 256,
257, 259, 260, 280, 288, 291, 292,
295, 299, 300, 312-313, 328, 329,
341, 360, 368, 369, 397, 429, 433,
445, 446, 448, 455, 457-459, 4&*
Manuwil, 347-348
Manzur b. Zabban, 144
Marabin, 488
Maraldyah, 205
Mar'ash, 231, 293-295
Mardanshah, 403, 410, 471, 472, 473
Mardanshah b. Zadan, 466
Ma'rib, in
Marj 'Abd-al-Wafcid, 282-283, 298
Marj Dabil, 314
Marj al-Qasa, 312
Marj IJusain, 263
Marj iRahit, 172
Marj as-Suffar, 174, 182-185, 186,
216
Marj Tarsus, 261
Martafewan, 229
Mara, 491, 492
Mara ar-Rudh, 369
al-Marwah, 71
dhu-1-Marwah, 29, 166
al-Marwabah, 403
Marwan b. al-IJakam, 20, 54, 79,
84, 184, 294, 356, 360
Marwan b. Muhammad, 193, 205,
231, 256, 259, 294-295, 296, 299,
314, 325-328, 368, 445, 466, 488
al-Marzubanah, Badham's wife,
160
Masabadhan, 459, 478-480
banu-Mashja'ah, 171
Mashra'at (or Furdat) al-Fil, 452
Masqat, 306, 309, 3i*9, 324
Maskin, 400
Maslamah b. 'Abd-al-Malik, 228-
229, 232, 233, 248, 249, 258, 288*
32>325, 456
Maslamah b. Mukhallad, 359
Mass, 488
al-Massisah, 254, 255-259, 260, 264
al-Mauriyan ar-Rumi, 312
al-Mausil, 261, 277, 400, 458
Mayanharaj, 483
Mayazdiyar b. Karin, 206
al-Mazihin, 278
Mesopotamia [al-Jarirah], 176,
191, 202, 207, 251, 254, 269-283,
287, 289, 290, 291, 292, 294, 296,
297, 299, 300, 309, 312, 313, 3M»
320,328
Mid'am, 57
Midlaj b. 'Amr, 270-280
abu-MibJan b. Qabib, 404, 414
Mihran, 393, 405-408
Mihrijankadhaf, 478-480
Mikha'il, 295, 296
Mikyas b. §ubabah, 67
Mi'lak b. Saffar, 322
Milhan b. Zaiyar, 200
Mirbala, 313
al-Misrain, 83, 449
Mt. Lebanon, 248, 250-251
Mt. al-Lukam [Amanus], 246, 247
Mu'adh b. Jabal, 107, 108, 109, no,
in, 215, 233-234 242, 375
Mu'awiyah b. Qudaij, 347, 357,
358, 359, 375, 38o
Mu'awiyah b. abi-Sufyan, 54, 59,
64, 79, 84, 86, 103, 135, 151, 155,
179, 180, 183, 184, 191, 194-197,
204, 205, 213, 216-219, 227, 228^
235-238, 250, 255, 269, 271, 278-
279, 287, 289, 293, 309, 310, 3",
320, 321, 341, 342, 344, 357, 358,
359, 375, 37*6, 441, 4SO, 454, 4fa
464, 470, 476, 479
Mu'awiyah b. Yazid, 359
al-Mubarak at-Tabari, 55, 56
INDEX
509
Mudhainib, 25, 26
al-Muffarraj b. Sallam, 372
al-Mughirah b. abi-l-'Asi, 125
al-Mughirah b. Shu*bah, 101, 321,
410-412, 427, 436, 440, 441, 447,
450, 463, 464, 472, 473, 475, 479,
481
Mubaiyi$ah b. Mas'ud, 50, 51
abu-1-Muhajir, 359
al-Muhajir b. abi-Umaiyah, 106,
107, 154-157, 160, 162
Muhakkim [Muhakkam] al-Yama-
mah, 134-136
Mubammad b. al-' Abbas, 484
Muhammad b. 'Abdallah b. 'Abd-
ar-Rahman, 288-289
Muhammad b. 'Abdallah b. Ijjasan,
446,457
Muhammad b. 'Abdallah b. al-
Qasan b. 'Ali, 55, 56
Muhammad b. 'Abdallah al-
Kummi, 381-382
Muhammad b. 'Abdallah b. Sa'id,
184
Muhammad b. al-Aghlab, 371
Mubammad b. al-Ash'ath, 155, 288,
361,368
Mubammad b. abi-Bakr, 358
Muhammad b. abi-Qudhaifah, 357,
358
Mubammad b. Ibrahim, 293, 297,
298,299
Mubammad b. IsbAk, 396
Mubammad b. al-Kasim, 250, 259,
452
Mubammad b. Marwan, 202, 294,
314, 321, 322, 399
Mubammad b. Maslamah, 51, 344-
345,392,438
Muhammad b. al-Murtafi', 30
Mubammad b. Sa'id, 184
Mubammad b. Yahya, 55
Muhammad b. Yazid, 330
Muhammad b. Yiisuf ath-Thakafi,
112
al-Muhammadiyah, 296
Mujahid b. Jabr, 376
Mujashi' b. Mas'ud, 490
Mujja'ah b. Murarah, 132, 134,
136-137, 141
al-Muka'bar al-Farisi, 129, 130, 131
al-Mufcaukis, 339, 340, 343, 34^348
al-Mukhabbil, 83
Mukhairik, 35
Mukharrim b. ljazn, 399
al-Mukhtar b. abi-'Ubaid, 439, 479
Muks, 313
Muluk at-Tawa'if, 309
al-Mundhir b. Hassan, 407
al-Mundhir b. Ma' as-Sama', 225
al-Mundhir b. an-Nu'man, 127, 128
al-Mundhir b. Sawa, 120, 123, 127
al-Muntasir, 372
Murah, 258
Murrah b. abi-Murrah, 483
Musa b. Bugha, 206, 489
Musa-1-Hadi, 184, 185, 297, 369,
459
Musa b. Nusair, 358, 362, 365-366,
396,397
abu-Musa-1-Ash'ari, 79, 85, 107,
267, 410, 4", 469, 478, 479, 485,
487,490
al-Mus'ab b. az-Zubair, 247
al-Musafir al-Kassab, 328
Musailimah al-Kadhdhab, 128, 132-
140, 151, 159
al-Musaiyab b. Zuhair, 293, 297
Mushall al-Armani, 329
Muslim b. 'Abdallah, 180, 228
al-Musta'in, 372
Mu'tah, 138, 195
Mu'tamir b. Sulaiman, 261, 296
Mutammam b. Nuwairah, 149-150
al-Mu'tasim, 206, 221, 225, 256, 257,
258* 259, 264, 299, 312-313, 446,
460, 461
5io
INDEX
al-Mutawakkil, ax, 56, 76, 81, 225,
229, 245, 249*50, 252, 263, 265,
287, 33i, 372, 375, 381-382, 46b,
461
al-Mutawakkiliyah, 319, 461
al-Mu'tazz, 489
al-Muthanna b. IJarithah, 169, 387-
388^ 390, 394, 395, 399, 400, 401-
402, 404, 409-410, 413
Muzaifciya, 31
Nabateans, 247, 248, 250, 289, 417
Nabulus, 213, 245
banu-an-Nadir, 33, 34-39, 43, 51
Nafis b. Muhammad, 30, 396
Nahr al-Amir, 452
Nahr ad-Damm, 390
Nahr Durfcit, 428
Nahr Mafedud, 433
Nahr al- Malik, 408, 422, 428
Nahr al-Mar'ah, 389
Nahr Maslamah, 232
Nahr Sa'd, 432
Nahr Said, 280
Nahr Shaila, 433
Nahr as,-Silah, 451
Nahr as-§in, 450
an-Nahrain, 407, 421, 431
umm-Nahshal, 82
Najd, 134, 165, 402
Najran, 20, 32, 76, 98-105, 107,
157,240
an-Najraniyah, 102, 103
an-Nakhirkhin, 417, 474
an-Namir b. Kasit, 398
an-Nashastaj, 431, 432
an-Nashawa, 307, 315, 321, 330
Nasibin, 274-275, 278-279
Nasr b. Malik, 293
Nasr b. Sa'd, 293
an-Natat, 45, 46
Nihawand, 146, 471-477, 478, 481,
485,490
Nifcabulus, 230
an-Nil, 450
Nizak Tarkhan, 491
Nizar, 435, 436
Nu'aim b. 'Abd-Kulal, 109
Nu'aim b. Aus, 197
Nubia, 379-382
an-Nujair, 154, 155, 157, 158
an-Nukhailah, 393, 405-408, 410
an-Nu'man Kail dhi-Ru'ain, 109
an-Nu'man b. al-Mtmdhir, 127,
390,394-395
an-Nu'man b. Zur'ah, 284
Nusair abu-Musa, 396, 397
an-Nusair b. Daisam, 398-400
Orontes [al-Urunt or al-Urund],
200, 227
Palestine [Filastin], 167, 168, 178,
193, 201, 202, 207, 213
232, 244, 301, 329, 353
Persians (Furs), 45, 63,
180, 306, 387, 389, 390,
401, 403, 407, 408, 409,
415, 416, 418, 419, 420,
441, 451, 453, 454, 455,
120, 123,
391, 396,
413, 414
421, 440,
462, 471
Rabad IJarran, 282
Ra'ban, 202, 231, 297
Rabi'ah, 127, 128, 229, 372, 392,
399,407
Rabi'ah b. Bujair, 169, 170
Rafafe, 213
ar-Rafikah, 280, 459
ar-Rahbah, 281
iRahwat Malik, 298
ar-Rai, 410, 457, 47i, 479, 484
ar-Raiya, 141, 142
ar-Rajjal [RaMj&l] b. TJnfuwah,
132, 133, 134
ar-Rakkah, 270-272, 274, 275, 27S,
280, 281, 282, 290, 300, 322
ar-Ramlah, 220-221
Ramman, 147
INDEX
5"
Ra's al-'Ain, 275-277, 279
Raslrifa, 274, 282
ar-Rass, 306, 319, 3*3
Raufc b. Qatim, 297, 330, 369
" ar-Rawadif," 247, 250
Rhodes [Rudis], 375-376
ar-Ribab, 151, 446
ar-Ruha, 269, 272-275, 278, 282,
287,300
ar-Rumiyah, 419, 434
ar-Rusafah, 446, 457
Rusafat Hisham, 280, 290
Rustam, 410-415, 420, 440, 441
Sabastfyah, 213
Sabat, 417, 419
as-Sabun, 129
Sabur, 433, 461
Sa'd b. 'Amr, 169, 279, 280, 432-433
Sa'd b. Khaithamah, 15, 16
Sa'd b. Malik, 431, 432
Sa'd b. Mu'adh, 40, 41
Sa'd b. abi-WaWcas, 23, 24, 176,
230, 409-414, 416/ 417, 418, 419,
420, 421, 422, 425, 43i, 432, 434.
435, 437-442, 449, 409, 481-4&
ag-Sadif, 107, 156
as^afa, 65, 71
Safiyah, 43-44
a§-Sa'fukah, 142
Safwan b. al-Mu'attal, 270, 273,
' 287,288
Safal b. IJunaif, 36, 37
Sahl b. Sanb&t, 330
as-Sa'ib b. al-Afcra', 471-472, 474,
478, 479, 48G
as-Sa'ib b. al-'Auwam, 136, 138
Sa'id b. 'Amir, 270, 275, 278
Said b. 'Amr b. Aswad, 323-325,
484
Sa'id b. 'Amr b. Said, 184
Said b. al-'Asi, 184, 310, 440
Sa'id al-Khair b. 'Abd-al-Malik,
280
Sa'id b. Sa'd, 81
Sa'id b. Salim, 329, 330
as-Sailafrin, 304, 410
as-Saimarah, 478
Sajib, 151
as-Sakun, 153, 406
•Salamyah, 205
Sala'us, 282
Sahfc b. 'Abd-ar-Ratiman, 465, 466
Salih b. 'All, 205, 221, 251, 257,
260, 291, 295
Salit b. Kais, 132, 401, 403, 4&5
Sallam at-Taifuri, 482, 483
Salma, 413, 414
Salman b. Rabi'ah, 230-231, 310-
312, 318-320, 415
Samaritans, 217, 244-245
a$-§amsamah sword, 183-185
as-Samur, 323, 326
§an'&', 106-107, 112, 156, 160, 162
as-§anariyah, 31$ 329
a§-4arah (canal), 396, 416, 446, 458
as-Sarat, 32, 405
as-Sarir, 326
Sarjun [Sergius], 301
Saruj, 274, 282
as-Sawad, 114, 387-400, 421, 422-
431, 449, 461, 462, 463, 465
as-Sawardiyah, 319, 443
as-Sayabijah, 250
Sa'yah b. 'Amr, 43
Seleucia [Salukiyah], 228
Shabath b. Rib'i, 151, 444
ash-Shibiran, 306, 319, 326
Shaila, 433
Shaizar, 201
abu-Shajarah 'Amr, 148
Shakkan, 319
abu-Shakir, 83
ash-Shamakhiyah, 329
Shamkur, 319
ash-Sharat, 193-194
Sharwan, 306, 309, 3*9, 324, 327,
329
5"
INDEX
ash-Shikk, 45, 46
Shimshat, 287, 289, 294, 297, 305,
319
Shirawaih, 406
Shurahbil b. Hasanah, 165-167,
177, 178, 179, 186, 190, 201, 21S
Shurafrbil b. as-Simt, 211-212, 406
Shuraifc b. 'Amir, 388-389
Shurat, 118, 328
Sicily [Si^Uiyah], 375
Sidon [Saida'], 194
Siffin, 232, 415
Sijistan, 465, 491
Simak b. Kharashah, s. v. abu-
Dujanah
Simak b. 'Ubaid, 476
asnSimt b. al-Aswad, 200-201, 21 1,
212, 224
Sinan, 255
as-Sind, 250, 252
Sinjar, 274, 276
Sinn Sumairah, 479
Siraj Tair, 305, 314
as-Sirawan, 476
Sirin abu-Mufeammad, 396, 398
as-Sisajan, 305, 307, 315, 322, 328,
331,332
Sisar, 482-484
Sisiyah (Sis), 262
as-Siy&sijun, 306, 307, 309
Slavs [Sakalibah], 231, 325
St. John's Cathedral, 191-192
as-Sudd al-'Arim, 30, 31
Sufyan b. 'Abdallah, 89
Sufyan b. 'Auf, 294
Sufyan b. Mujib, 194, 195
Sufyan b. 'Uyainah, 238, 240
abu-Sufyan b. Qarb, 61, 62, 63, 66,
87, 91, 101, 107, 157, 197, 208
Sughdabil, 306
Suhail b. 'Amr, 129, 215
Suhaim b. al-Muhajir, 248
abu-Sulaim Faraj al-Khadim, 260,
262
banu-Sulaim, 148; 291
Sulaiman b. 'Abd-al- Malik, 54, 198,
220, 222, 366
Sulaiman b. Kirat, 482, 483
Sulaiman b. Sa'd, 301
Sulalim, 45, 46
Sultais, 340, 349
Sumaisat, 273-274, 297
Suran, 372
Surra-man-ra'a, 330, 332, 372, 382,
460-461
as-Sus al-Adna, 359, 362
as-Sus al-Aksa, 362
Suwa, 169-170
Suwaid b. Kutbah, 388, 389
Syria (ash-Sham), 16, 17, 20, 32,
46, 50, 61, 75, » 96, 102, 103,
in, 146, 155, 158, 162, 165-16*
169, 173, 175, 176, 177. 180, 190,
191, 194, 19$ 20* 209, 210, 211,
212, 2X4, 215, 2l6, 217, 219, 220,
223. 230, 231, 232, 234, 238, 241,
246, 247, 249, 250, 251, 254, 26l,
269, 278, 279, 283, 287, 280, 292,
297, 299, 309, 3io, 320, 33* 397,
400, 405, 409, 415, 471
Tabalah, 91
Tabaristan, 489, 490
Tabarsaran, 309, 324, 327
Tabuk, 92-94, 105, 167
Tadmur, 171
Taflis, 241, 305, 316-317, 325
banu-Taghlib, 114, 115, 151, 169,
170, 284-286, 39* 399
at-Ta'if, 28, 6i, 62, 85-90, 165, 208
Taima', 31, 57-59
Taiyi', 224, 419
Takat Bishr, 282, 447, 459
Takrit, 225, 399, 400
Talfrah b. 'Ubaidallah, 144,431,432
Tall 'Af ra», 282
Tall A'zaz [or 'Aziz], 230
Tall Jubair, 263
INDEX
513
Tall Madhaba, 282
Tall Matron, 275
Tamim b. Aus, 197
banu-Tamim, 120, 129, 149, 151,
278,394
Tanjah [Tangiers], 357, 359, &
Tanukh, 223, 224, 254
Tarifc b. Ziyad, 362, 365
Tarsus, 253, 254, 260-262, 263, 296,
460
Thabit b. Kais, 139, 145
Thabit b. Nu'aim, 328
ath-Thabja' al-ljadramiyah, 155
Thafcif, 8s. 86, 87/248, #7
Tha'labah b. 'Amr, 32, 33
ath-Tha'labiyah, 389, 405, 409
Thaniyat al-TJkab, 172, 200
That b. dhi-HJirrah, 161
ath-Thughur al-Jazariyah [Meso-
potamian Frontier Fortifica-
tions], 287-300
ath-Thughur ash-Sharaiyah [Fron-
tier Fortresses of Syria], 253-
265
Thumamah b. al-Walid, 295
Tiberias [Tabaraiyah], 178-179
Tigris, 417, 418, 421, 4^7, 430, 44^,
451, 453
at-Tirrikh, 313-314
Tizanabadh, 410, 432, 443
Tizin, 202, 229
Tripoli [Atrabulus], 194-196
Tripoli (Atrabulus) in Africa, 355,
357, 369
Tulaihah b. Khuwailid, 145, 146,
147, 414, 415, 4»
Tulaitulah [Toledo], 365
Tumin, 326
Tunis, 360, 369
Turaifah b. Eajizah, 149
Turandah, 289-290
Turks, 307, 491, 493
Tustar, 394, 401
Tyre [Siir], 179, 180, 181, 220
'Ubadah b. al-Baritb, 133
'Ubadah b. a§-§amit, 201, 203-205,
209, 216, 217, 235, 237
Ubai b. Ka'b, 18, 69, 135
TJbaid b. Murrah, 30, 396
abu-'Ubaid b. Mas'ud, 401-402,
403-404, 405, 406
'Ubaidah b. 'Abd-ar-Rabman, 367
abu-IJbaidah b. al-Jarrafr, 65, 165-
166, 172, 173, 176, 177, 178, 179,
186-190, 193, 198, 200, 203, 205,
208, 211, 213-216, 223-224, 226-
^32, 234, 244, 246, 254, 26ft 270,
293, 4"
'Ubaidallah b. al-Mahdi, 330
TJbaidallah b. Ziyad, 151, 480
al-Ubullah, 388
al-'Udhaib, 391, 401, 405, 409, 410,
413, 414, 463
Ufcud, 22, 28, 30, 35, 80, 140, 477
Ukaidir b. 'Abd-al-Malik, 95-97
'Ulcbah b. 'Amir, 342, 343
'Ufcbah b. Nan', 353, 357, 358, 359,
361, 367, 379
'Ukbara', 399
IJkkashah b. Mihsan, 145, 146
Ullais, 389-390, 393, 404, 4©5
'Umair b. al-Qubab, 288
•Umair b. Sa'd, 209-210, 237, 241,
254, 272, 276-277, 279, 284-285,
287
'Umair b. Wahb, 336, 342
banu-Umaiyah, 52, 53, 135, 193,
221, 233, 251, 258, 296, 330, 368,
3o6, 397, 443, 455, 456
abu-Umamah As'ad, 19, 218
abu-Umamah as.-Sudai, 168, 230,
415
IJman, s^, 116- 119, 124, 140, 147,
155
'Umar b. 'Abd-al-'Aziz, 20, 21, 28,
49, 52, 53, 54, 58, 70, 88, 92, 103,
104, 105, 112, 118, 190, 192, 204,
514
INDEX
220, 238, 255, 258, 280, 290, 322,
342, 349, 354, 366, 438, 44^
'Umar b. Ijjafs Hizarmard, 361,
368-369
IJmar b. Hubairah, 282, 445
OJmar b. al-Khaftab, 20, 22, 23, 24,
27, 29, 34, 37, 42, 45, 46, 48, 49,
50, 51, 53, 54, 57, 58, 61, 62, 6ft
70, 73, 74, 76t 81, 82, 87, 88, 8ft
102, 103, in, 123, 124, 125, 126,
130, 131, 138, 139, 141, 146, 147,
148, 150, 151, i» 158, 162, 166,
173, 176, 179, 188, 190, 191, 194,
196, 197, 198, 208, 209, 210, 212,
214-219, 222, 227, 233-234, 235,
240, 241, 242, 253, 269, 270, 272,
273, 275, 276, 277-278, 279, 284-
286, 296, 310, 320, 335, 336, 337,
338, 339, 340, 341, 343, 344, 345,
346, 347, 351, 353, 355, 375, 379,
393, 395, 399, 401-402, 404, 405,
406, 409-412, 414, 4i6, 422-428,
430, 431, 434, 435, 438, 439, 440,
446, 448, 464, 469, 471-475, 481,
485,487
b. 'Umar, 18, 23, 36, 43, 47, 49, 70,
73, 88, 356
al-Urdunn, s. v. Jordan
'Urwah b. Zaid, 402-404
'Urwah b. az-Zubair, 29, 51, 107,
122,343
'Utbah b. Ghazwan, 125, 410-41 1
'Utbah b. Rabi'ah, 81
'Uthman b. 'Affan, 20, 25, 29, 51,
54, ^7, 74, 76, 102, 104, 123, 141.
184, 194, 196, 222, 227, 232, 235,
253, 278, 279, 286, 287, 309, 3io,
311, 318, 320, 321, 340, 350, 35i,
356, 357, 358, 359, 396, 397, 431,
432, 440, 482, 486
'Uthman b. abi-l-'Asi, 90, 124, 125,
487,490
'Uthman al-Audi, 483
'Uthman b. $unaif, 102, 423, 426,
427,428, 430
'Uyainah b. tJisn, 145, 146
'Uyun al-'Irfc 463
'Uyun at-Taff, 461-463
Wadi-l-£ura, 29, 31, 37-30, 321
Wadi Mahzur, 24, 25, 26
Wabshi b. Qarb, 80, 135
Wais, 307, 315
banu-Wali'ah, 153-158
al-Walid b. 'Abd-al-Malik, 20, 54,
76, 192, 193, 195, 220, 24ft 250,
259, 260, 280, 362, 366, 376, 423.
454, 456
al-Walid b. 'Ukbah, 102, 282, 3",
440,447
al-Walid b. Yazid, 104, 238, 241,
298,328,367
Wardan, 342, 350
Warthan, 323, 324, 328
Wasit, 264, 449-452
Wasit ar-Rakkah, 281
al-Wathik, 185, 24ft 451, 460
al-Watih, 45, 46
Yafa [Jaffa], 213
al-Yahudiyah, 485, 487
Yahya b. 'Imran, 489
Yahya b. Sa'id, 50, 184
al-Yakusah, 175
Ya'la b. Munyah, 152, 157
al-Yamamah, 21, 76, 129, 132-142,
389, 394, 415
al-Yaman, 31, 6i, 86, 98, 99, 102,
103, 106-115, 152, 156, 150-162,
165, 183, 226, 261, 435, 471, 477
al-Yarmuk, 175, 188, 207-211, 2i6t
223, 335
Yathrib (al-Madinah), 31, 33, 34,
44,86
Yazdajird b. Shahriyar, 406, 416,
417, 4i8, 420, 421, 469, 471, 486,
400-493
INDEX
5*5
Yazid b. 'Abd-al-Malik, 112, 190,
204, 322, 366, 442
Yazid b. Qatim, 369
Yazid b. al-Qurr, 254
Yazid b. Makhlad, 262
Yazid b. Mu'iwiyah, 59, 75, 76, 96,
103, 202, 236, 244, 24S, 294, 359,
376, 480
Yazid b. al-Muhallab, 259, 366
Yazid b. abi-Muslim, 366
Yazid b. abi-Sufyan, 58, 166-168,
173, 178, 179, 186, 189, 190, 193,
194, 196, 201, 208, 215-217, 219,
269, 335, 341
Yazid b. 'Umar, 445
Yazid b. Usaid, 319, 328-329
Yazid b. al-Walid, 238, 241, 368
Yubanna b. Ru'bah, 92
Yusha' b. Nun al-Yahikdi, 50
Yusuf b. Mubammad, 330-331
Yusuf b. TJmar, 104, 105, 442, 488
az-Zab, 370
Zabid, 107
Zadan Farrukh, 465-466
Zaid b. al-Khattab, 138, 139, 150
aba-Zaid al-Ansari, 116, 117, 118,
Zamzam, 77
Zandaward, 38ft 402, 450
az-Zarah, 129, 130, 131
az-Zawazin, 275
Zawilah, 352-354
b. az-Ziba'ra as-Sahmi, 68
Zibatrah, 282, 298-299
Zirikiran, 309, 326
Ziyad b. Abihi, 436, 437, 441. 447,
464, 479
Ziyad b. Labid, 107, 153-157. 160
abu-Zubaid at-T&'i, 282, 404
Zubaidah, daughter of abu-l-Fa<Jl,
81, 281, 45i
az-Zubair b. a!-'Auwim, 27, 28, 38,
39, 43, 49, 63, 65, 138, 336-338,
343.431
{ Zuhair b. Kais, 360
Zuhair b. Sulaim, 417
Zuhrah b. Qawiyah, 413, 4*6, 440-
441
banu-Zuhrah, 80, 413
Zur'ah b. dhi-Yazan, 107
Zuraib, 24
Zurirah, 432, 442
az-Zutt, 250, 251. 259. 264
ERRATA
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